Kaffee (Getränk / Bohnen, bio?)

Bei der Kaffeezubereitung wird das Kaffeepulver mit heissem Wasser übergossen, wobei ein Filter aus Metall oder Papier verwendet werden kann. Die Brühzeit ist je nach Zubereitungsart unterschiedlich. Zur Verfügung stehen Presskannen oder Kaffeemaschinen für Filterkaffee. Für Espresso eignen sich Stahl- oder Aluminiumkocher, die auf den Herd gestellt werden, sowie Kolbenmaschinen und Vollautomaten. Bei Spezialitäten wie Cappuccino und Latte Macchiato wird Milch bzw. Milchschaum zugesetzt. Wichtig ist ein angemessenes Trinkgefäss.

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There are two main coffee plant species, Arabica and Robusta, which are used in the global coffee industry. Arabica is known for its more complex flavours and aromas, and is therefore more common in specialty coffees. Robusta on the other hand, is known for its high coffee content and use in mass production due to easier growing conditions. 

The definition of specialty coffee for this research was coffee beans which have traceability to origin, been harvested and processed using the correct grading requirements, then roasted and brewed by a barista to meet quality and flavour profile (Hoffmann & Beazley, 2014:7; Krekó, 2015:10; Specialty Coffee Association of America, 2018). Specialty coffee shops are often categorized by using high quality freshly roasted coffee beans and brewing with alternative brew methods such as Chemex, Syphon, Cold brewin

ifferent brewing methods and creating coffee experiences for consumers such as Aeropress, cold brew, siphon and Pour-Ove

Beobachtugsstudie

DOI: -

Study: moderate evidence

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Epidemiological studies report also suggest that drinking of boiled coffee is associated with elevated risk for cardiovascular disease. This is mainly due to the two diterpenes identified in the lipid fraction of coffee grounds, cafestol, and kahweol. These compounds promote increased the plasma concentration of cholesterol in humans. Unfiltered coffee is a significant source of cafestol and kahweol, which are diterpenes that have been implicated in the cholesterol-raising effects of coffee. Coffee beans contain cafestol and kahweol, two ingredients that appear to raise LDL cholesterol levels

Through improvements in physical endurance, cognitive function, particularly alertness and vigilance, mood and perception of fatigu

it stimulates the nervous system, causing it to send signals to the fat cells to break down body fat

Above the recommended maximum amount of caffeine is 400 milligrams, which obtained from 4 cups of coffee. Through making chronic inability to fall asleep or to enjoy uninterrupted sleep.

two or more cups of coffee per day. The ingestion of large quantities of caffeine might be associated with arrhythmic and cardiovascular events, especially in patients with underlying heart disease

Drinking coffee when pregnant, caffeine will also reach the fetus, and child is highly sensitive to caffeine. Therefore, heavyweight coffee drinker while pregnant, at least reduce coffee intake not more than one cup per day.

it reduces appetite for food. Inducing satiety and smoking augments

Some other physiological effects that governed with caffeine include central nervous system stimulation, acute elevation of blood pressure, increased metabolic rate, and dieresis [25]. Caffeine is body weight regulator by controlling the balance of energy through rising energy expenditure and decreasing energy intake. It also improves weight maintenance through thermogenesis, fat oxidation, and energy intake

Chlorogenic acid (the most prominent), caffeic acid, melanoidin are all antioxidants found in coffee. N-methyl pyridinium, one of identified as an anti-oxidant that found in coffee.

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.4172/2167-0412.1000301

Study: weak evidence

The first group comprised, e.g., ferulic acid and feruloyl sulfate and showed early appearance in the plasma (∼1 h). The second group contained particularly chlorogenic acid metabolites formed by the intestinal microflora, appearing late and persisting in the plasma (>6 h). Trigonelline appeared early but persisted with calculated half-life times ∼5 h. The plasma levels of caffeine metabolites significantly and progressively increased 2–4 h after coffee consumption and did not reach c _max within the time frame of the study.

Table 4 Pharmacokinetic data of coffee bioactives and their metabolites in human. Caffeine ~320 Halbwertszeit. berechnet. 

• Polyphenole: Phenolsäuren: Hydroxyzimtsäuren (Ferulasäure, Isoferulasäure); Phenolische Verbindungen: Catechole (Catecholsulfate, Guaiacolsulfat)
• Alkaloide: Pyridinal-Alkaloide (Trigonellin), Purin-Alkaloid (Koffein, Theobromin, Methylxanthine)
• Stickstoffhaltige Verbindungen: Betalaine (Pyridinium-Derivat)

In comparison, caffeine (III-1, 12.0 mg/g) was not significantly affected by thermal processing.

Since some of these metabolites have been reported to show antioxidant effects in vivo, antioxidant-response-element activating potential, and neuroprotective properties, respectively, some of these key metabolites might account for the inflammation- and DM2/AD risk reducing effects reported for habitual life time consumption of coffee.

Experimentelle Humanstudie mit analytischem Schwerpunkt in wissenschaftlichem Journal (nicht gesundheitsbezogen)

DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7288-0

Study: weak evidence

The incidence of cardiovascular diseases has significantly increased with the expansion of the industrialization of societies, which is notably linked to lifestyle changes and an unhealthy diet. Hence, determining the healthiest diet habits and supple- ments seems to be an appropriate way to decrease the global burden of cardiovascular diseases. Currently, caffeine, one of the most widely consumed compounds in the world, has emerged with some promising results in the treatment of numerous pathophysiological conditions of cardiovascular diseases. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases for the relevant articles regarding the pharmacology, preclinical, and clinical studies on the potential effects of caffeine on cardiovascular diseases. While caffeine could improve cardiovascular outcomes through several mechanisms of action, the literature review revealed controversial clinical effects of caffeine on blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmias, acute coronary syndrome, stable angina, and heart failure. In the case of dyslipidemia, coffee consumption increased total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low-density lipoprotein. Taken together, the existence of multiple confounding factors in the caffeine studies has resulted in inconclusive data interpretation. Further well-designed studies with adequate control of the confounding factors are warranted to draw a clear conclusion on the cardiovascular efficacy and safety of caffeine.

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1007/s40290-023-00466-y

Study: weak evidence

The study indicates that while research has demonstrated the potential of coffee to mitigate liver damage, a comprehensive quantitative analysis of its effects has yet to be conducted. This study seeks to explore the current landscape and focal points of research on coffee consumption's impact on the liver from 2013 to 2023. Articles published within this timeframe were retrieved from the Web of Science database and subjected to analysis using R software, VOSviewer, and CiteSpace software. A total of 1106 articles primarily focused on coffee's impact on liver health were analyzed. The frequency of publication exhibited a significant increase from 2013 to 2023. The United States emerged as the leading contributor in publications and international collaborations, particularly with institutions such as Harvard Medical School and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Noteworthy journals in this domain included "Nutrients" and "Hepatology" Commonly occurring keywords encompassed components, chlorogenic acids, oxidative stress, and liver. The study highlighted coffee's potential benefits in preventing cardiovascular and liver diseases, attributed to mechanisms such as antioxidant activity and modulation of hepatic cells. Through bibliometric analysis, this study offers valuable insights into the research status and emphasis on coffee's effects on liver health, serving as a significant reference for future investigations in this area.

Systematische Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31132

Study: strong evidence

Our study aimed at evaluating in a population cohort the effect of Italian-style coffee consumption on prostate cancer risk and at investigating in vitro the potential antiproliferative and antimetastatic activity of caffeine on prostate cancer cell lines. 6,989 men of the Moli-sani cohort aged ≥50 years were followed for a mean of 4.24 ± 1.35 years and 100 new prostate cancer cases were identified. 

The newly diagnosed prostate cancer participants presented lower coffee consumption (60.1 ± 51.3 g/day) compared to the disease-free population (74.0 ± 51.7 g/day) (p < 0.05). Multiadjusted analysis showed that the subjects at highest consumption (>3 cups/day) had 53% lower prostate cancer risk as compared to participants at the lowest consumption (0-2 cups/day) (p = 0.02). Both human prostate cancer cell lines treated with caffeine showed a significant reduction in their proliferative and metastatic behaviors.

Epdemologische Kohortenstudie und experimentelle In-vitro-Studie in Zellmodellen

DOI: 10.1002/ijc.30720

Study: moderate evidence

A 2007 quantitative review of observational studies demonstrated a new, positive effect of coffee consumption on lowering the risk for AD – approximately by 30% as compared to non-coffee consumers [48]. A 2010 review of longitudinal epidemiological studies suggested that daily intake of 3–5 cups of coffee in middle age may lower the risk of the disease by 64% as compared to lower amounts of coffee [6]. Two meta-analyses of cohort and case-control studies, from 2010 and 2015, also reported an inverse correlation between disease incidence and coffee/caffeine consumption [43, 49]. Furthermore, a review of the literature on the effects of various environmental reasons for the development of AD indicated a beneficial influence of coffee intake [14]. However, most authors emphasize a great number of methodological differences, which renders unequivocal conclusions difficult. One of the main limitations is a lack of accurate data on the duration of coffee intake among the studied populations. As a result, it is challenging to establish at what age coffee might start to exhibit its positive effect [43, 48]. The amounts of coffee, described as ‘low’, ‘moderate’, or ‘high’ in various sources [39, 42], and of caffeine in a cup, which might be anything between 36 and 220 mg, constitute yet another difference

Parkinsons Disease:  The lowest risk for disease was associated with daily consumption of 1–3 cups of coffee. A correlation between coffee intake and disease development was also confirmed by studies in Parkinson patients only. Coffee drinkers developed the disease 8 years later than did non-coffee drinkers (mean age at onset 72 and 64 years, respectively) [56].

 A clinical study on Parkinson’s patients demonstrated that administration of adenosine receptor antagonists alleviates disease symptoms [81]. Experimental studies on animal models revealed that caffeine stabilizes blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, which contributes to brain homeostasis.

Narrative Übersichtsarbeit in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.5114/aoms.2016.63599

Study: weak evidence

Table 2 Summary of studies on coffee and vascular events.

 Although regular consumption of moderate quantities of coffee and (green) tea seems to be associated with a small protection against CAD, results from randomized clinical trials about their beneficial effects are less evident.

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2011.07.014

Study: weak evidence

this figure, there were differences in the sensory properties of each coffee sample due to the brewing method. Las Brisas was one of the samples that presented a greater variability obtaining higher scores for the attribute “roasted” when it was prepared with the espresso machine but at the same time this attribute scored lower when it was prepared with the drip coffee maker.

For most of the attributes, the cupping method tend to produce higher notes than the coffee maker method, which probably can be explained because the coffee maker method uses a paper filter, while in the case of the cupping method the extraction takes place without any filter. According to the Specialty Coffee Association of America, any method that uses a paper filter take away some oils and essences that get trapped in the filter during the extraction.

The process of preparation of many products, such as coffee, is complex. For example, water temperature, holding time, holding temperature and other aspects can cause the loss of many of the components that are characteristic of the product, and sensory properties flavor will change dramatically

Sensorische Experimentalstudie

DOI: 10.1111/joss.12184

Study: moderate evidence

Graph 43: Coffee Consumption of Europe, ‘000 60-kg Bags

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Studies among European consumers [62] indicate that they use different coffee preparation methods. Italians, Swiss, and Portuguese use espresso machines: fully automated, capsule, and drip coffee maker. While Germans mainly use a filter coffee makers to brew coffee. In turn, in the South Africa foodservice market espresso based coffee dominate 

According to available sources, the highest coffee consumption in Europe is in Scandinavia at approximately 10 kg of coffee per capita per year. In Finland is 12 kg per capita per year; in Norway, 9.9 kg; in Iceland, 9 kg; in Denmark, 8.7 kg, and in Sweden, 8.2 kg. In other European countries, coffee consumption is lower, in Netherlands—8.4 kg, Switzerland—7.9 kg, Belgium—6.8 kg, and Luxembourg—6.5 kg [1]. In Poland, coffee consumption is an average of 2.2–3 kg per capita per year

Beobachtungsstudie

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18083948

Study: moderate evidence

Grafik: häufigsten Zubereitungsarten mit unseren Empfehlungen zusammengestellt. 

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Ein Rezept für einen einfachen Espresso, das sich bewährt hat:

• 25 bis 30 ml Wasser
• auf 7 bis 9 g Kaffeemehl
• für 20-30 Sekunden bei 9 bar Brühdruck und einer
• Wassertemperatur von 90-96 Grad Celsius.
• Und für einen doppelten Espresso (Doppio) — aus dem aus verschiedenen Gründen zu empfehlenden Doppelsieb:

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For example, Fair Trade has the primary goal of improving the livelihoods and wellbeing of producers. It also stands for improved working conditions, and better buyer–seller relations (Dragusanu et al., 2014; Giovannucci and Ponte, 2005). The Fair Trade scheme emphasizes having a price premium for the producers (Reinecke et al., 2012). Rainforest Alliance or Organic has a greater focus on goals other than income for producers (Dragusanu et al., 2014). For instance, Rainforest Alliance assures that the products have been grown and harvested using environmentally and socially responsible practices and focuses on biodiversity conservation (Reinecke et al., 2012), while the USDA Organic label indicates that the coffee is produced according to the USDA Organic standards. Finally, Bird Friendly certification requires Organic production in addition to providing a forest-like habitat for birds. UTZ certified, founded in 2003, is the most recent of the major certification schemes. It focuses on better business practices and incorporates the GLOBAL G.A.P. standards for coffee (Pierrot et al., 2011). It is focused on transparency in the supply chain and responsible production (Reinecke et al., 2012). Carbon Footprint labeling is another sustainability label which could be present on coffee but is rather rare. This label indicates that the producer is reducing its carbon emissions.

Ökologische Ressourcenstudie

DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.07.011

Caffeine is considered to be the most popular psychoactive drug consumed worldwide with a record of approximately 120,000 tons per year [18,19]. Caffeine is absorbed by the stomach and small intestine within 45 minutes [20] and is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase system (CYP1A2) into 3 metabolic dimethylxanthines: paraxanthine (84%), theobromine (12%), and theophylline (4%) 

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2020.05.005

Study: weak evidence

2.5. Caffeine interaction with other drugsADD

Fig. 3. Overview of caffeine pharmacokinetics.

Caffeine is structurally similar to adenosine as depicted in Fig. 6(b) [16]. Caffeine can non-selectively bind to the adenosine receptors and competitively inhibit them. Hence, caffeine acts as an antagonist and inhibits adenosine stimulation of the receptors [26]. For instance, binding of adenosine to the receptors in the central nervous systems will promote drowsiness [24]. Nerve cells are unable to differentiate between adenosine and caffeine. Thus, after caffeine is consumed, caffeine will inhibit the adenosine from binding and activating the receptors [24]. This will result in temporary relief of drowsiness, and this is why we feel more alert when we consume caffeine [24]. Adenosine receptors play a huge role in affecting individual sensitivity to caffeine. For instance, the ADORA2A gene encodes for adenosine A_2A receptors [51]. A human study conducted showed that polymorphisms of this gene can lead to individuals reacting differently to the same dosage of caffeine

Following ingestion, caffeine is quickly and almost completely absorbed into the bloodstream [20]. This reflects caffeine's 100% bioavailability and its high solubility in water and organic solvents [12]. 80% of caffeine is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract while the remaining 20% is absorbed by the stomach

Following ingestion, caffeine is quickly and almost completely absorbed into the bloodstream [20]. This reflects caffeine's 100% bioavailability and its high solubility in water and organic solvents [12]. 80% of caffeine is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract while the remaining 20% is absorbed by the stomach
Once absorbed, about 10%–30% of caffeine is reversibly bound to plasma proteins like albumin [25](12). The rest of the caffeine molecules are extensively and quickly distributed to the different body tissues and organs [16](22). The mean distribution volume for caffeine is estimated to be 0.7 L/kg body weight which suggests the hydrophilic nature of caffeine. This allows caffeine to be distributed freely into the intracellular tissue water. Moreover, caffeine molecules are also lipophilic enough to pass through all biological membranes, including the blood-brain barrier and the placental barrier. There have been no physiological barriers found to limit the distribution of caffeine [18]. This explains why it can be easily detected in different types of body fluids, including human breast milk and amniotic fluid [18]. Although there is no accumulation of caffeine in any tissues or organs, high concentrations of caffeine can be found in the brain. It is reported based on animal studies that about 80% of plasma caffeine is found in the brain [1]. This is because caffeine's primary mode of action is the blockage of adenosine receptors which are mainly distributed at different parts of the brain 

Caffeine is a stimulant that can exacerbate the effects of these drugs, leading to increased side effects and toxicity. The drugs pictured that have negative or adverse interactions with caffeine include alcohol, Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, beta blockers like propranolol, benzodiazepines, clozapine, heart medications, theophylline, levothyroxine, and warfarin. Patients taking these medications should limit or restrict caffeine intake to avoid reduced efficacy or dangerous health consequences. Consulting a pharmacist or doctor can help identify safe caffeine limits for individuals on these medications.

Taking caffeine with other stimulants like amphetamines, cocaine, ephedrine, or medications for ADHD can increase side effects like jitteriness, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety [35,36]. The stimulant effects can compound. Caffeine can oppose the effects of blood pressure medications like beta blockers and diuretics, blunting their effectiveness at lowering blood pressure [37]. Certain antibiotics like ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin can also affect the metabolism of caffeine and the longer presence of caffeine in blood can be lethal [38]. A gap of a few hours should be allowed between taking these antibiotics and caffeine however some studies also report the synergistic effect of caffeine with antibiotics including gentamycin, amoxyllin, azithromycin, cefepime, benzylpenicillin, and novobiocin [39,40]. Additionally, caffeine can decrease the sedative effects of benzodiazepines used for anxiety or sleep like diazepam and lorazepam, making them less effective [41].
There are also concerns about interactions with thyroid medications and clozapine and can lead to toxicosis [42]. Caffeine also reduces the absorption of levothyroxine, requiring a gap of at least 4 h between taking this medication and caffeine [43]. The stimulant effects of caffeine should also be used cautiously in people with anxiety disorders, cardiac conditions, and sleep disorders as it can exacerbate symptoms and medical advice should be considered before consumption of caffeine in any form while consuming medications.

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmcr.2024.100138

Study: weak evidence

Coffee is a globally consumed beverage. However, the impairments associated with its excessive use remain under-recognized. There is currently no standardized measurement for coffee use disorder based on DSM-5 application. This study describes the development and psychometric properties of the Coffee Use Disorder and Coffee Addiction Scale (CUDCAS)—a self-report tool developed specifically for this purpose. A cross-sectional survey was designed and delivered to 523 participants. Items from CUDCAS (11 items with reference cluster) indicate substance use disorder criteria taken from the DSM-5 and were rated on a three point Likert scale and used descriptive statistics; internal consistency (Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω); exploratory/confirmatory factor analysis (EFA, CFA); item response theory (IRT), and correlations with caffeine consumption, insomnia (AIS) and anxiety symptoms (GAD-7) were also examined. CUDCAS was found to be a very reliable (α and ω = 0.86) measure of coffee use disorder symptoms. CFA results supported the unidimensional factor structure of the CUDCAS and the overall model fit was good (CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.04). The IRT analyses further demonstrated an appropriate distribution of item difficulties, measurement of item precision and subsequently, CUDCAS as an overall measurement of coffee use disorder that is responsive to coffee consumption. CUDCAS also demonstrated significant correlations with caffeine consumption (r = 0.54), insomnia (r = 0.37), and anxiety (r = 0.32), respectively, for construct validity. The findings suggest that the CUDCAS is a reliable and valid tool to assess the symptoms of coffee use disorder, and the current results provide support for its use in research and clinical settings.

Querschnittsstudie in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1674097

Study: weak evidence

We included 10 prospective studies covering 214,059 participants and 9,597 cases. There was overall 3.5% higher fracture risk for an increment of one cup of coffee per day.

Meta-Analyse basierend auf Beobachtungsdaten in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.5114/aoms.2012.31612

Study: moderate evidence

After adjustment for smoking and maternal age, a daily consumption of more than 300mg of caffeine compared to less than 100mg of caffeine was significantly associated with an increased gestational age (linear regression coefficient = 2.00 days, 95%CI = 0.12–4.21, P = 0.03). Tea consumption was significantly related to a higher risk of pregnancy induced hypertension (OR = 1.13, 95%CI = 1.04–1.23, P = 0.004). No associations concerning coffee consumption or birth weight and birth length were observed.

For most outcomes, we found no significant associations with coffee or tea intake.

Kohortenstudie

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177619

Study: moderate evidence

The balance between coffee phytochemicals and post-harvest handling is complex and delicate since these compounds are affected either negatively or positively. Studies have shown positive health effects arising from regular consumption of coffee, which are linked to phytochemicals present in the coffee bean. However, phytochemicals must be available in considerable amounts at the time of consumption in order for them to confer the beneficial health effects. This review aims at summarizing the available literature on the impact of coffee processing steps on the content as well as sensory and functional characteristics of phytochemicals. The phytochemicals in coffee include, majorly: Chlorogenic acids, caffeine, diterpenes and trigonelline. Literature reveals that variation in coffee post-harvest handling techniques such as degree of roast, processing method, brew preparation method and parameters results into brew with varied sensory and functional properties. This could be majorly attributed to the variation in the phytochemicals content in the cup. Further research on how coffee phytochemicals are affected during post-harvest handling practices would unlock the health benefits of this popular beverage and immensely benefit the consumer.

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2021.103995

Study: weak evidence

Background: Previous observational studies investigated the relationship between coffee and tea intake and the risk of asthma, however, the conclusions were inconsistent. Further, the combined effect of coffee and tea consumption on asthma has rarely been studied. Methods: We examined associations between the self-reported intake of tea and coffee and the risk of incident asthma in a total of 424,725 participants aged from 39 to 73 years old from the UK Biobank. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate the associations between coffee/tea consumption and incident adult-onset asthma, adjusting for age, sex, race, smoking status, body mass index (BMI), education, and Townsend deprivation index. Results: Cox models with penalized splines showed J-shaped associations of coffee, tea, caffeinated coffee, and caffeine intake from coffee and tea with the risk of adult-onset asthma (p for nonlinear <0.01). Coffee intake of 2 to 3 cups/d (hazard ratio [HR] 0.877, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.826–0.931) or tea intake of 0.5 to 1 cups/d (HR 0.889, 95% CI 0.816–0.968) or caffeinated coffee intake of 2 to 3 cups/d (HR 0.858, 95% CI 0.806–0.915) or combination caffeine intake from tea and coffee of 160.0 to 235.0 mg per day (HR 0.899, 95% CI 0.842–0.961) were linked with the lowest hazard ratio of incident asthma after adjustment for age, sex, race, smoking status, BMI, qualification, and Townsend deprivation index. Conclusions: Collectively, the study showed light-to-moderate coffee and tea consumption was associated with a reduced risk of adult-onset asthma and controlling total caffeine intake from coffee and tea for a moderate caffeine dose of 160.0 to 305.0 mg/day may be protective against adult-onset asthma. Further investigation on the possible preventive role of caffeine in asthma is warranted.

Prospektive Kohortenstudie in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.3390/nu14194039

Study: moderate evidence

While coffee is consumed without the addition of milk or cream in many countries, adding milk or cream is an essential part of the coffee preparation in other parts of the world. This includes the addition of whole, semi-skimmed or skimmed milk, and light or heavy cream, while the use of steamed milk, condensed milk, plant-based milk, or foamed milk is also popular. According to the amount and type of the milk/cream added to a cup of coffee, espresso-based coffee comes with various possible formulations/presentations, but in the most basic form, it is served alone (i.e., a shot or short black, with or without hot water added; Caffe Americano, long black) (Castle and Nielsen 1999). Milk can be added to a cup of espresso in various forms; steamed milk in caffe latte (Fried 1993), equal parts of milk and milk froth steamed in cappuccino (Castle and Nielsen 1999), a dollop of hot foamed milk in caffe macchiato (Miller 2003), steamed hot milk (microfoam) in flat white (for bringing out the flavor and creating a velvety texture) (Kenneally 2014), and many other recipes.

Although most of these studies have reported an inhibitory (negative or masking) effect of milk on the antioxidant properties of CGAs (Al-Doghaither et al. 2017; Jeon et al. 2019; Quan et al. 2020), others have reported a neutral effect (non-masking, with neither inhibition nor enhancement) (Otemuyiwa, Williams, and Adewusi 2017; Renouf et al. 2010) or even a positive effect (enhancement) (Alongi, Calligaris, and Anese 2019) of milk on the antioxidant activity and bioavailability of CGAs. According to the data available in the literature so far, the effect of milk addition on the functionality of coffee depends on some factors such as coffee type, milk composition, the ratio of milk to coffee, temperature, and method of preparation.

word “coffee” is derived from the Arabic word “quahweh” (Smith 1985). This word through its equivalent in Turkish (kahweh) was then pronounced “caffe” in Italian, “caf
e” in French, “Kaffee” in German, “koffie” in Dutch, and the wellknown term of “coffee” in English

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2015.1099515

Study: weak evidence

The amount of CGA and metabolites recovered after consumption of combined coffee-milk (40% ± 27%) was consistently lower in all subjects compared to that of coffee alone (68% ± 20%). Concluding, the simultaneous consumption of milk and coffee may impair the bioavailability of coffee CGA in humans.

Crossover-RCT

DOI: 10.1021/jf201906p

Study: strong evidence

Eine Studie hat ergeben, dass der CO₂-Fussabdruck für Kaffee auch abhängig von der Zubereitung ist. So verbergen sich hinter einer Tasse mit 40 mL Kaffee durchschnittlich 52 g CO₂eq bei der Verwendung einer Moka-Kanne, 85 g CO₂eq mit einer Espresso Kaffeemaschine (Siebträger oder Vollautomat ist unklar), 82 g CO₂eq mit einer Padmaschine und 65 g CO₂eq unter Verwendung einer Kapselmaschine.

The production of one cup of coffee gave rise to 45-57 or 47-59 g CO_2e when using the Moka pot heated by an induction- or gas-fired stove, 74-96 g CO_2e when using the espresso coffee machine, 72-92 g CO_2e when using the pod coffee machine, and 57-73 g CO_2e when using the capsule coffee machine, whether the post-consumer wastes were incinerated or disposed of in landfills. Based on these estimates, the environmentally aware consumer should be conscious that the preparation of a cup of coffee with a coffee pod or capsule machine would result in extra emissions of 27.6 or 12.6 g CO_2e with respect to those emitted with an induction Moka pot, respectively.

The agriculture phase was responsible for 55.4% of the overall GHG emissions, followed by the consumer and post-consumer phases (36%), coffee roasting, packaging, and distribution (6.6%), and oversea transportation (1.9%).

Moreover, 84.5% of roasted and ground coffee was packed in flexible polylaminated bags, each one containing from 250 g to 3 kg, 7.5% in steel cans having the same capacities, and 5% as single-serving coffee capsules or pods.

Life Cycle Assessment

DOI: 10.1016/j.spc.2021.04.004

Figure 2 Overview on the life cycle phases and the CO2e emissions of the different processes within the value chain of coffee. Functional unit: 2000 cups of coffee a 125 ml.

Smart user behaviour may save a lot of energy, too: if the coffee machine has an automatic power down function, this should be set to 1/2 to 1 h. Note: the automatic power down function is usually set to 1 to 2 h by factory setting. With the proper setting, not only energy can be saved but also seals and pumps remain in good condition for a longer time, not being hot all of the time. Coffee machines without an automatic power down function should directly be switched off after use. For appliances with an energy saving mode (lowering the temperature of the thermo block), consumers should consult the manual or check the menu in order to verify that this function is activated. If necessary, the energy saving mode must be activated.

Ökobilanz-Studie

DOI: 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2010.00971.x

Approximately 70% of the CO₂ emissions was due to field emissions related to urea and limestone applications. Field emissions are also the major contributor for other seven impact categories evaluated. Fertilizer production was responsible for approx. 60% of fossil resource scarcity.

For conventional coffee, the GWP₁₀₀ was approx. 1.4 kg CO₂-eq. kg⁻¹ green coffee beans and 1.8 kg CO₂-eq. kg⁻¹ roasted coffee beans and ground roasted coffee. For organic coffee, the GWP₁₀₀ was approx. 0.3 kg CO₂-eq. kg⁻¹ green coffee beans and 0.5 kg CO₂-eq. kg⁻¹ roasted coffee beans and ground roasted coffee. The use of water is also low, as the farms evaluated do not adopt the irrigation system at the coffee growing stage.

Some examples that can contribute to reducing GHG emissions as well as other environmental impact categories are increasing productivity, lower input consumption (fertilizers, correctives, and fuels), and optimizing transport stages

Approximately 70% of the CO₂ emissions was due to field emissions related to urea and limestone applications. Field emissions are also the major contributor for other seven impact categories evaluated.

Life-Cycle-Asessment

DOI: 10.1007/s11367-024-02317-7

 Based on the average virtual water content of roasted coffee (20.4 m³/kg), one cup of coffee requires about 140 l of water in total. A standard cup of coffee is 125 ml, which means that we need more than 1100 drops of water for producing one drop of coffee.

The standard cup of coffee and tea in the Netherlands costs about 140 l and 34 l of water respectively. 

For the overall water need in coffee production, it makes hardly any difference whether the dry or wet production process is applied, because the water used in the wet production process is a very small fraction (0.34%) of the water used to grow the coffee plant. However, the impact of this relatively small amount of water is often significant. First, it is blue water (abstracted from surface and ground water), which is sometimes scarcely available. Second, the wastewater generated in the wet production process is often heavily polluted.

Wasserfussabdruck-Analyse

DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.02.022

birds are attracted to coffee agroferests not only for coffee cherrie but also for several other foots - fruits nectar, insects. inwiefern Kaffeeplantagen die reproduktion der Vögel unterstützten ist unklar, da Plantagen oft unmittelbar neben bestehenden Wäldern existieren. Beschattete Plantagen könnten wichtig sein, um die Biodiversität der Vogelarten zu erhalten.

discussion: important repositories of biological diversity. number of herbs, of arboreal species seem to be the key components determing the biological diversity of the coffee agroecosystem. Tree speices not only support a rich epiphytic flora, tehy also attract and maintain birds and mammals by offering edible fruits, nectsar and insects , and also arthropods such as sylophilous beetles. herbal richness is probably diciseve for the diversity of many groups of arthropods.

Review zur Artenvielfalt

DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97153.x

Arabica coffee is the only allotetraploid with chromosome number (x= 11), which is formed via the hybridization or introgression between two diploids: C. canephora x C. eugenoides, self-fertile, better adapted to highlands, usually graded as ‘high’ quality, milder taste, and its bean sizes are usually bigger than robusta due to the polyploidy state3 , but it is known to be more susceptible to major diseases of coffee, esp. leaf rust.3 Meanwhile, C. canephora or also known as ‘robusta’ is more indigenous to tropical African forests covering a large area ranging from West Africa, central, until the northern Angola and Tanzania, which corresponds to hot and humid tropical climatic regions. Its range of production mostly found in low and middle altitudes regions of Africa. Although it has more inferior cup quality, the plant is more robust against major attacks of diseases and insect pest

However, these were strongly damaged by leaf rust and root disease

main types of coffee processing techniques , they are: 1) wet type, 2) dry type; while the first is presumed to be much better in terms of bean quality but due to its higher cost only companies or real enterprises such as farmer cooperation applies that one (Figure 3). The second method is commonly applied by many small holder farmer or by farmer living on areas with water scarcity but in Indonesia, this kind of method is applied for beans with low or degraded quality, e.g. half mature or over mature.

Figure 3 The two common types of coffee processing, after.9:

The difference between the two types is due to water application during the peeling of outer skin and fermentation process (Figure 3). Nevertheless, the combination of both processing types is also applied in some cases. The transformation of coffee cherries into clean, green bean of 12% moisture ready for export and roasting depends on a scrutinize and careful processing; starting from harvesting and picking the mature cherries, pulping, fermenting, washing, drying, hulling or sometimes called as ‘dehulling’, cleaning, grading, sorting, storing, and transporting green beans. It is necessary to realize that each of these steps has an in-/direct influence on the final quality of coffee produced at the end. The process of any agricultural products, generally, continuous chain activities aimed at achieving a coffee of high quality. If any disturbance or retarded process intervenes the ‘link’, e.g. over fermentation, mold contamination, taints or odors, or any physical damages to the bean), then the quality loss would affect the final profit from the selling

The major constraints in coffee are pest and diseases are caused due to insect pests, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. 

1 Various ‘common’ attacks of pests and diseases in Coffea spp. based on Winston et a:  Green coffee scale (Coccus viridis), Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii), Stemborers, Coffee berry borer, Mealybug,  Damping off, Carcospora leaf spot , Coffee leaf rust , Overbearing or dieback

Up to now, we still do not own the full range and degree of activity of predators but preliminary studies have indicated that the presence of a number of predators with spiders; e.g. wolf spiders (Lycosa spp.), dwarf spider (Atpena spp.), as well as other flies, wasps and diverse kinds of insects could be applied as natural predators being in common.

The origin of coffee is in Ethiopia, which is believed as the center of the commercial coffee species in this world: C. arabica and C. canephora

Agrarökologische Fallstudie

DOI: 10.15406/mojes.2021.06.00228

Table 2. World’s Top Ten Coffee Producers—Production, Export and Proportions of World Production and Export During 2015

Among the top ten producers, Brazil, Vietnam, and Colombia together produce and export almost 60% of the global total. then Indonesia, Ethiopia, India

The wet process is more time, resource, and labor intensive. The cherries are sorted by immersion in water. The bad cherries float to the top and are discarded. Those that sink are the good, ripe cherries, which are further processed by pulping (removal of pulp) and drying. 

A tropical woody genus, Coffea belongs to the Rubiaceae family. The primary center of origin of C. arabica is the highlands of southwestern Ethiopia and the Boma plateau of South Sudan, with wild populations also reported in Mount Marsabit in Kenya (Meyer, 1965; Thomas, 1942). C. canephora has a much wider distribution, from West to East Africa in Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Nigeria, Cabinda, Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Sudan, South Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda and to the south to Angola

The Arabica coffee tree is a small tree with the potential in the wild to reach 9 to 12 meters in height, growing at an altitude of 1,300 to 2,000 meters above sea level. From seed germination to first fruit production, the coffee plant takes about three years, when it reaches full maturity. The fruit of coffee is known as a cherry and the seed inside is known as the bean. The fruit is comprised of the epicarp (skin), mesocarp (pulp), endocarp (parchment), integument (silverskin), endosperm (bean), and embryo.  The leaves are opposite, dark green, shiny, and waxed. 

Worldwide, an estimated 125 million people are dependent on coffee for their livelihoods (Osorio, 2002), with more than 50 countries producing and exporting coffee, almost all in the developing worl

Optimal temperatures for growing Arabica coffee are 18ºC during the night and 22ºC during the day, although tolerated extremes extend from 15ºC up to 30º C. Robusta coffee can tolerate slightly higher temperatures, with optimal temperatures between 22 and 28ºC (Descroix & Snoeck, 2009). Water availability, in the form of rainfall and atmospheric humidity, affects growth of coffee. Most coffee-growing regions are typically rain-fed, since land topography is not conducive to installation of irrigation systems. For Arabica growth, annual rainfall of 1,400 to 2,000 mm is favorable, and for robusta, it is 2,000 to 2,500 mm.  The best relative humidity for robusta is 70% to 75% and for Arabica it is around 60%. Natural or artificial shade is provided to coffee plants in cultivation to recreate their original forest environment, although sunlight-tolerant varieties have been developed for increased productivity. However, shade still remains useful, especially to mitigate the effects of extreme high and low temperatures. Strong winds affect the growth of coffee, with significant damage caused by cyclones. Regions frequently impacted by cyclones include Madagascar, the Philippines, the Caribbean, Vietnam, and Hawai’i. The best soils for coffee growing include alluvial and colluvial soils with texture, as in volcanic formations, and good drainage. Soil depth of at least 2 m is required for taproot growth and development (Descroix & Snoeck, 2009).

Although flat lands or slightly rolling hills are best suited for coffee growing, they are not always available in many coffee-growing regions due to the natural topography of the land. Flat areas allow for mechanization. On steep slopes, mechanization is difficult and production becomes costlier since conservation measures need to be implemented to prevent soil erosion. A coffee plant starts producing flowers 3 to 4 years after planting, with full productivity achieved in 5 to 7 years. Productivity starts diminishing after about 20 years, although with proper handling, the trees can bear fruit for about 50 years or so. Typically, Arabica coffee takes about 6 to 9 months and robusta coffee takes about 9 to 11 months (Wintgens, 2009). Inputs like fertilizer and pesticides maximize coffee productivity. A characteristic of coffee production is the biennial pattern of fruit bearing by the trees, with high yield in alternate years.  In well-managed systems with adequate fertilization and proper pruning, biennial bearing is less pronounced.  In the dry method, the cherries are directly dried, either naturally in sunshine or using mechanical dryers. Once the coffee is dried, through a process called hulling, the outer parchment layer (and the dried pulp in the case of dry-processed coffee) is removed. Polishing, which is an optional processing method, removes the silverskin, the layer beneath the parchment layer. The green beans are then color sorted and graded for size. 

Brazil continues to be the world’s largest coffee producer, and due to use of mechanized harvesting, it has achieved much higher productivity than with hand-picking

In the coming decades, climate change will have a huge impact on coffee production, especially C. arabica, which is a climate-sensitive species. Noticeable effects of climate change, such as a hotter climate and less and more erratic precipitation, have already been documented in coffee-producing regions. In recent years, droughts have become more frequent in coffee regions and they are expected to increase in severity during the 21st century. The changes in temperature and rainfall will lead to a decrease in areas suitable for coffee cultivation, moving the crop up the altitudinal gradient, and will lead to increased incidences of pests and diseases, expanding the altitudinal range in which pests and diseases can survive. Direct impacts of climate change will result in stressed growth of coffee trees, limited flowering and berry development, poor yield, and poor quality of the coffee beans. Severe outbreaks and spread of diseases (such as leaf rust, coffee berry disease, wilt, leaf blight), insects (coffee berry borer, leaf miners, scales), and nematodes will be experienced—the coffee leaf rust epidemic of Central America in 2012/2013 being an example.

The imminent danger of the effects of climate change warrants the conservation of coffee ecosystems through reduction of deforestation and forest degradation. Coffee genetic resources are under threat due to loss of the forest ecosystems housing these valuable gene pools. Conservation of coffee germplasm as seeds is not a viable option due to the recalcitrant/intermediate storage behavior of seeds. Hence, coffee is conserved in field gene banks.

Drawing from the existing initiatives, the International Institute for Sustainable Development has identified five principles for sustainable development, providing a broad foundation for an integrated approach within the coffee sector (IISD, 2003):

Principle 1: Fair price/wage to producers that covers production, living, and environmental costs within a competitive framework with a measured degree of stability.

Principle 2: Maintain employment relationships in accordance with core International Labor Organization (ILO) conventions and local law.

Principle 3: Implement environmentally sustainable production practices.

Principle 4: Enhanced access to credit and opportunities for diversification for producers.

Principle 5: Enhanced access to trade information and trade channels for producers.

The Future

Enzyklopädie-Beitrag

DOI: 10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.224

A batch of green beans (1, groene koffie) is weighed and transported to a funnel (2, vultrechter). The funnel fills the roaster (3, roostvat). In a furnace (4, fornuis) air is heated by a flame. The heated air is used to heat the beans. To ensure a uniform roast, a stirrer is used to stir the beans. Gases and the skin of the beans are removed through a fan (5, ventilator) and a chimney. The skins and the gases are separated, after which the gases are burned in an afterburner (6, naverbrander). This is done to prevent a release of smelly gases in the environment. The skins are gathered (7, cycloon). When the beans have reached their desired temperature (Tf inal), the roast process is stopped. The beans are cooled down with water (8, bluswater). Then they are put on a grid (9, koelbak) to cool down some more. When the roasted beans are cooled down, they are stored in a container (10, gebrande koffie).

Rotating drum roasters are the most commonly employed equipments by the roasting industry for batch or continuous processes. In this case beans are mixed with hot gases in a horizontal rotating drum (with or without perforated walls) or in a vertical fixed drum roaster with paddles. Among the others kind of roasters fluidised bed and spouting bed roasting facilitate roasting for short time periods with low gas temperatures. The higher gas velocities in the roasting processes fluidized bed and spouted bed lead to a better heat transfer. The spouted bed needs less gas (energy consumption), but may lead to less homogeneous roasting result than fluidized bed roasting. 

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Several levels of temperatures and roasting time had been studied depending on the roasting machine. Mehaya [14] uses a drying oven to roast a coffee at 160-220°C for 10 to 40 minutes, while [15] use Probat B to roast coffee beans at 200°C for 18 to 22 minutes. The temperature and roasting time themselves are determined by coffee roasting degree which is the visual classification of the color to determine the actual degree of roast of a bean. It could be divided into the green bean, early yellow, brown, 1st crack done, very light, light, medium, and dark [10]. Different roasting degrees result in a unique flavor and the bioactive compounds of a cup of coffee. The bioactive compounds such as phenolic, alkaloids, Maillard reaction products (MRPs), and terpenoids can provide a health-beneficial effect

Popping beans is one of the simple techniques to determine the roasted degree i.e., the first sound, namely 1st crack. The roasted coffee degrees based on popping sound are categorized to light (initial of 1st crack beginning), medium (1st crack peak), medium-dark (initial of 2nd crack), dark roast (final of the second crack)

The accumulation of carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) from Maillard reaction inside the beans produced blow holes at 1st crack or first pop sounds. Besides physical, the roasting process affects chemical changes since the complex chemical reaction took place i.e., caramelization, Maillard reaction, and pyrolysis produce pleasant flavor

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/974/1/012115

Study: weak evidence

 Compared with nonconsumers, consumers of various amounts of unsweetened coffee (>0 to 1.5, >1.5 to 2.5, >2.5 to 3.5, >3.5 to 4.5, and >4.5 drinks/d) had lower risks for all-cause mortality after adjustment for lifestyle, sociodemographic, and clinical factors, with respective hazard ratios of 0.79 (95% CI, 0.70 to 0.90), 0.84 (CI, 0.74 to 0.95), 0.71 (CI, 0.62 to 0.82), 0.71 

the respective estimates for consumption of sugar-sweetened coffee were 0.91 (CI, 0.78 to 1.07), 0.69 (CI, 0.57 to 0.84), 0.72 (CI, 0.57 to 0.91), 0.79 (CI, 0.60 to 1.06), and 1.05 (CI, 0.82 to 1.36)

The association of coffee drinking with mortality from cancer and CVD was largely consistent with that with all-cause mortality. 

The association between artificially sweetened coffee and mortality was less consistent. 

Prospektive Kohortenstudie

DOI: 10.7326/M21-2977

Study: moderate evidence

After multivariable adjustment, each 1 cup per day increment in unsweetened caffeinated coffee was associated with a reduction in 4-y weight gain of -0.12 kg (95 % CI: -0.18, -0.05 kg) and of -0.12 kg (95 % CI: -0.16, -0.08 kg) for unsweetened decaffeinated coffee. The habits of adding cream or nondairy coffee whitener were not significantly linked to weight changes. Adding a teaspoon of sugar was associated with a 4-y weight gain of +0.09 kg (0.07, 0.12 kg).

Gepoolte prospektive Kohortenstudie

DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.09.023

Study: moderate evidence

The Maillard Reaction (MR) is a non-enzymatic chemical reaction which results in the linkage between the amino group of amino acids and the carbonyl group of reduced sugars. MR products (MRPs) are common components of processed foods, mainly as a result of heating, especially in the Western diet. However conflicting data has since been reported, and only a few (acrylamide, heterocyclic amines and 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural) MRPs have documented potential toxic or carcinogenic effects. 

n a study using rodents, the exposure of acrylamide in different amounts led to an increase in the risk of developing cancer in the lung, thyroid, skin, and pancreas (Beland et al. 2013

The major concern arising from the Maillard reaction is the formation of compounds that are not naturally present in foodstuff. Time, high temperature, and other parameters generate products that may have detrimental health effects such as mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, cytotoxicity, and metabolic diseases, or beneficial impacts such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antihypertensive properties

The MRPs that have been reported to possess toxic and carcinogenetic properties are HMF, Acrylamide, HCAs, and AGEs

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1378865

Study: weak evidence

For example, a recent study focused on the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of pesticides' exposure to male farmworkers. Results showed that 87% of the farmers do not put on masks or gloves when spraying coffee crops with pesticides (36). This puts them at risk of respiratory problems. Symptoms can be clear upon either direct exposure or after a certain period of time. Despite the different levels of risk the farmers had, the problem is the same. It is true that the optimal solution is to revert to organic farming, but meanwhile it is important to take steps to control pesticide use.

To study the impact of toxicants in coffee, 34 pesticides were detected and quantified in 150 coffee samples and risk assessment was calculated

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1004570

Study: weak evidence