Kokosfleisch, roh (Kokosnussfleisch, bio?)

Coconut palms grow between 23° north and 23° south of the equator. If the tree survives oitside this limit it souesnt produve fruit. Coconut palms flourish in sandy soil that is aerted and well drained. They do best in temperature between 27°C and 30 °, and altough they tolerate salt water, they do require fresh groundwater and humid environment.
Indonesia is the world's largest producer of coconuts, with the Philippines coming in a close second. India is number tree in production. These tree countries acount for about 70 % of the world's total production of coconuts. Brazil, Sri Lanka and Vietnam follow as forth, fifth and sixth..

It would be dificult to find a coconut product made in Thailand that wasn't picked by a monkey..A trained male macaque can pick 1600 coconuts a day.. human production of eighty coconuts per day

Coconut is considered to be so important to the current weill-being of people of Sri lanka that the minister of coconut has been a cabinet level position since 1976.

about 17 billion coconuts are harvested worldwide, which translate to more than 80 million people earning their livelihoods whrough the growing and processing of coconut. . Of the just 110 million people in the Phiippines there are 1.5 million coconut farmers and more than 24 million other people involved in coconut growing or processing.

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Nährstofftabellen.

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Kohortenstudie

"Higher dietary intakes of major SFAs are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. Owing to similar associations and high correlations among individual SFAs, dietary recommendations for the prevention of coronary heart disease should continue to focus on replacing total saturated fat with more healthy sources of energy."

"Intervention studies have consistently linked SFA intake with deteriorated blood lipid profile, with individual SFAs conferring heterogeneous effects, which might also explain the current controversies over SFAs.9 10 For example, a recently updated meta-analysis of clinical trials found that lauric acid (12:0), myristic acid (14:0), and palmitic acid (16:0) significantly raised levels of total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol when mixed carbohydrates in diet were replaced by these fatty acids.9 10 The effects of stearic acid (18:0), however, were largely neutral."

DOI: 10.1136/bmj.i5796

Study: moderate evidence

"Obacht: Zu lange blieb unbeachtet, dass beim traditionellen Trocknen des fetthaltigen Kokos-Fruchtfleisches über dem Feuer von Kokosschalen PAK und 3-MCPD-Ester entstehen und später ins Öl - auch von Bioware - eingehen. Gegenmassnahmen sind in vollem Gange."

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"Für über 400 Millionen Menschen der tropischen Regionen ist die Kokospalme die wichtigste Nutzpflanze und die entscheidende Fett- und Eiweissquelle..."

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Coconuts, in shells. 2023. Production Quantity.

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"Coconut oil is 100% fat, 80-90% of which is saturated fat. This gives it a firm texture at cold or room temperatures. Fat is made up of smaller molecules called fatty acids, and there are several types of saturated fatty acids in coconut oil. The predominant type is lauric acid (47%), with myristic and palmitic acids present in smaller amounts, which have been shown in research to raise harmful LDL levels. Also present in trace amounts are monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats."

"Although epidemiological studies find that groups of people who include coconut as part of their native diets (e.g., India, Philippines, Polynesia) have low rates of cardiovascular disease, it is important to note that many other characteristics, dietary and other, could be explanatory. Also, the type of coconut they eat is different than what is used in a typical Western diet. These groups do not eat processed coconut oil, but the whole coconut as coconut meat or pressed coconut cream, along with an indigenous diet of foods rich in fiber and low in processed and sugary foods. [2]"

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Tabelle 22: Anbau und Produktion von Naturfasern weltweit, 2005 (ohne Baumwolle und Wolle)

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Systematisches Review: 21 Studien

"Twenty-one research papers were identified for inclusion in the review: 8 clinical trials and 13 observational studies. The majority examined the effect of coconut oil or coconut products on serum lipid profiles. Coconut oil generally raised total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol to a greater extent than cis unsaturated plant oils, but to a lesser extent than butter. The effect of coconut consumption on the ratio of total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was often not examined. Observational evidence suggests that consumption of coconut flesh or squeezed coconut in the context of traditional dietary patterns does not lead to adverse cardiovascular outcomes. However, due to large differences in dietary and lifestyle patterns, these findings cannot be applied to a typical Western diet. Overall, the weight of the evidence from intervention studies to date suggests that replacing coconut oil with cis unsaturated fats would alter blood lipid profiles in a manner consistent with a reduction in risk factors for cardiovascular disease."

DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuw002

Study: strong evidence

Narratives Review

"Fats constitute the most significant nutritional source of energy. Their proper use by the body conditions a number of complex mechanisms of digestion, absorption, distribution, and metabolism. These mechanisms are facilitated by fats made of medium chain fatty acids; therefore, they are an easy and quick source of energy. Thus, an increased supply of medium chain triglycerides (MCT) is particularly important in patients with disturbances of digestion and absorption such as disturbed bile secretion, classic coeliac disease, short bowel syndrome, inflammatory diseases of the intestines, disturbed outflow of lymph, some metabolic disease, and severe food allergies, as well as in prematurely born neonates. Use of preparations containing an additive of MCT is limited, especially if they are to be used for a longer period of time. With a large quantity of MCT in a diet, there is a risk of deficiency of necessary unsaturated fatty acids and some fat-soluble vitamins. The caloricity of MTC compared to long-chain triglycerides is lower, and formulas with MCT are characterised by higher osmolality. Medium chain triglycerides is not recommended as an additive to standard formulas for healthy children. The use of MCT should be limited to strictly specified medical indications."

DOI: 10.5114/pg.2016.61374

Study: weak evidence

"TFA recommendations: 1. WHO recommends that adults and children reduce trans-fatty acid intake to 1% of total energy intake (strong recommendation). 2. WHO suggests further reducing trans-fatty acid intake to less than 1% of total energy intake (conditional recommendation). 3. WHO recommends replacing trans-fatty acids in the diet with polyunsaturated fatty acids or mono unsaturated fatty acids primarily from plant sources (conditional recommendation).

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"For eight months, from December 2021 to July 2022, PETA Asia conducted its third investigation into Thailand’s coconut industry, in which chained monkeys are forced to spend long hours climbing tall trees and picking heavy coconuts. In response to international criticism following the release of PETA Asia’s two previous investigations, the Thai government and companies that make coconut products have claimed that monkeys are no longer used in the making of exported products, but PETA Asia’s new investigation has confirmed that rampant abuse of primates is still going unchecked – and that Thai coconut industry insiders are deliberately hiding monkey labor in their supply chain."

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The owner of one “monkey school” that investigators visited admitted to buying from farmers who use nets to kidnap wild infant monkeys from their homes and families—even though it’s typically illegal.

In nature, macaques live in large groups with strict hierarchies and an intense focus on social relationships. But at one of the facilities investigated, juvenile monkeys slated to be trained for coconut picking were kept away from other members of their own species in cages. At another facility, investigators saw a chained female monkey who was also kept away from other monkeys, with no food or water nearby and little access to shade."

"The terrified young monkeys are forced to perform frustrating and difficult tasks, such as twisting heavy coconuts until they fall off the trees from a great height. An investigator learned that if monkeys try to defend themselves, their canine teeth may be pulled."

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Butter 4,695 465 393 5,553 7,692

DOI: 10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8

coconut 2687 Globalaveragewater footprint(m3ton−1)

DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011

There were six farms applying a conventional production system (AL, BA, CE2, CE3, CE4 and SE in Table 1) and one, using an organic system (CE1). All seven farms are classified as large size by the Brazilian government (INCRA 2020).

Coconut carbon footprint varied from 116 (AL farm, Fig. 2) to 363 kg of CO2-eq/ton of coconut (CE3 farm, Fig. 2). Both AL and CE3 farms adopted the conventional crop system but had great differences in yield: 60 t/ha in AL and 19 t/ ha in CE3 (Table 1). Moreover, the AL farm caused less GHG emissions from LUC and nitrous oxide emissions from coconut and fertilizer production.

The system boundary was from cradle to gate, encompassing the processes of land use change (LUC), production and transport of inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, water and energy) and coconut production

DOI: 10.1007/s11367-021-01871-8

Avocado Nr. 11

Pfirsich Nr. 52

Bio-Butter Nr. 2 (bei Milchprodukten)

Ananas Nr. 2-3

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"The article sounds a warning call about the potential impacts of oil palm expansion on tropical forests and biodiversity, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia; this concern is shared by many environmentalists and concerned scientists [2,3]. However, in spite of efforts by conservationists to curtail deforestation due to oil palm, the global market for palm oil continues to expand."

DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2008.09.006

Kokosöl - Fluch oder Segen der Karibik
Die Kokosnuss wächst auf Palmen in warmen tropischen Ländern, ihr Genuss lässt uns an Karibik denken. Natives, nicht raffiniertes Kokosöl wird als „Superfood“ verkauft, die Nachweise dazu fehlen allerdings. Kokosöl ist keine umweltfreundliche Alternative zu Palmöl!

Kokosfett oder Kokosnussöl kommt aufgrund seiner Hitzestabilität oft beim Braten zum Einsatz. Es wird aus dem Fruchtfleisch der Kokospalme gewonnen und chemisch behandelt, also raffiniert, gebleicht und desodoriert.

Kein Beweis für gesundheitsfördernde Wirkung
Sogenanntes natives Kokosöl hingegen wird nicht raffiniert, nicht chemisch behandelt und oft als besonders gesundheitsfördernd beworben. Doch für diese positive Wirkung auf die Gesundheit fehlen die Studien. Fest steht, dass Kokosöl einen hohen Anteil von gesättigten Fettsäuren enthält, und diese können nachweislich schlechte LDL-Cholesterinwerte erhöhen - also keine Spur von gesund!

Wirklich gesund sind andere Öle
Für exotische Gerichte darf das Kokosöl in Bio-Qualität mit seinem süsslichen Geschmack gelegentlich auf den Teller. Für das tägliche Kochen empfiehlt DIE UMWELTBERATUNG aber anderes Öl aus Bio-Landbau, etwa heimisches Rapsöl oder Olivenöl. Diese haben einen positiven Effekt auf unsere Gesundheit, wie zahlreiche Studien belegen. Und sie punkten auch ökologisch gegenüber Kokosöl, weil die Transportwege kürzer sind.

Weniger Ertrag auf Kosten des Regenwalds
Aufgrund des Protests der Konsument*innen sind viele Produkte palmölfrei, einige davon mit Kokosöl produziert. Ein Schutz des Regenwalds ist damit aber nicht gesichert, denn auch Kokospalmen wachsen in tropischen Gebieten wie Indonesien und auf den Philippinen. Bisher wurden sie oft in kleinbäuerlichen Strukturen kultiviert, die hohe Nachfrage führt wieder zu Monokultur. Bei den Erträgen kann die Kokospalme nicht mit der Ölpalme mithalten welche fast den siebenfachen Ertrag auf gleicher Fläche liefert.

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The CO₂ concentration of the atmosphere has increased by almost 30% since 1800. This increase is due largely to two factors: the combustion of fossil fuel and deforestation to create croplands and pastures. Deforestation results in a net flux of carbon to the atmosphere because forests contain 20–50 times more carbon per unit area than agricultural lands. In recent decades, the tropics have been the primary region of deforestation. The annual rate of CO₂ released due to tropical deforestation during the early 1990s has been estimated at between 1.2 and 2.3 gigatons C. The range represents uncertainties about both the rates of deforestation and the amounts of carbon stored in different types of tropical forests at the time of cutting. An evaluation of the role of tropical regions in the global carbon budget must include both the carbon flux to the atmosphere due to deforestation and carbon accumulation, if any, in intact forests. In the early 1990s, the release of CO₂ from tropical deforestation appears to have been mostly offset by CO₂ uptake occurring elsewhere in the tropics, according to an analysis of recent trends in the atmospheric concentrations of O₂ and N₂. Interannual variations in climate and/or CO₂ fertilization may have been responsible for the CO₂ uptake in intact forests. These mechanisms are consistent with site-specific measurements of net carbon fluxes between tropical forests and the atmosphere, and with regional and global simulations using process-based biogeochemistry models.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.energy.21.1.293

"Beyond its lipid profile, coconut milk contains diverse bioactive phytochemicals, particularly phenolic compounds, which contribute to its antioxidant activity and potential health benefits [7]. These compounds include phenolic acids (e.g., gallic acid, caffeic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, and syringic acid) and flavonoids such as catechin [8]. Previous studies, such as those by Arivalagan et al. [9] and Mahayothee et al. [10], have identified and quantified these compounds in coconut meat. Nevertheless, detailed characterization of these compounds remains limited, particularly regarding their variation across different geographic origins and maturity stages of the coconut fruit."

"Phenolic compounds are widely considered as key contributors to the functional properties of coconut, and their concentration can serve as an important indicator of nutritional and bioactive potential. In this study, TPC of all samples was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu method. As shown in Figure 1A, distinct differences were observed between tender and mature coconuts. In coconut meat, TCM exhibited a significantly higher TPC (248.19 ± 35.89 mg GAE/kg) compared with MCM (190.90 ± 6.94 mg GAE/kg). A similar pattern was evident in coconut water, where TCW contained 92.41 ± 14.83 mg GAE/L and MCW contained 33.26 ± 6.99 mg GAE/L."

"In coconut meat (Figure 2A), the predominant categories (>1% relative abundance) included organooxygen compounds (42.00%, 199 compounds), fatty acyls (13.09%, 130 compounds), carboxylic acids and derivatives (13.06%, 231 compounds), hydroxy acids and derivatives (9.96%, 12 compounds), flavonoids (7.97%, 58 compounds), followed by glycerolipids (3.30%), prenol lipids (1.45%), unsaturated hydrocarbons (1.12%), and benzene derivatives (1.06%). Collectively, the top five categories accounted for approximately 86% of the phytochemical profile. Notably, phenolic compounds (flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives, and benzoic acids and derivatives) represented 8.58% of total constituents, underscoring their potential nutritional relevance."

"Overall, the phenolic profile revealed clear influences of both tissue type and developmental stage. Coconut water contained a higher proportion of phenolics than coconut meat, particularly flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic acids, highlighting its role as a polyphenol-rich beverage. In addition, tender samples consistently exhibited greater phenolic abundance than mature ones, indicating that phenolic richness declines with fruit maturation as metabolic resources shift toward lipid accumulation in the kernel. Importantly, the identified flavonoids such as catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidins, which are well known for their antioxidant and cardioprotective properties, underscore the nutritional and functional potential of coconut-derived products, especially in their tender stage."

DOI: 10.3390/foods14234023

Study: weak evidence

Ein weiteres Problem betrifft die Menschen vor Ort: Die Kokosproduktion übernehmen in den Hauptanbaugebieten, wie etwa den Philippinen, viele Kleinbauern. Dort leben über 60 Prozent der Bäuerinnen und Bauern unter der Armutsgrenze, und das während die Preise am Weltmarkt steigen. Die höheren Einnahmen versickern oft bei Zwischenhändlern, die das gewonnene Kopra – so etwas wie das Fruchtfleisch der Kokosnuss – an Ölmühlen weiterverkaufen. Das ist nicht nur schlecht für die Lebensbedingungen der Bäuerinnen und Bauern vor Ort, sondern auch für die Umweltbilanz der Kokosproduktion.

Wer sich möglichst umweltschonend ernähren möchte, dem hilft aktuell nur ein genauer Blick auf Siegel und Zertifizierungen. In Bezug auf Palmöl sind das zum Beispiel die Siegel des Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), bei Kokosöl hilft das Zertifikat der Rainforest Alliance (RA). Ein europäisches Lieferkettengesetz könnte helfen, mehr Klarheit unabhängig von einzelnen Siegeln zu schaffen: Unternehmen würden grundsätzlich dazu verpflichtet, ökologische und soziale Standards entlang der gesamten Lieferkette sicherzustellen.

Damit wäre auch den Bauern vor Ort und damit wiederum der Umwelt geholfen. Denn: Aus Sozialstandards resultieren auch höhere Einkommen. Diese wiederum helfen beim Wissensaufbau, beispielsweise hinsichtlich Infrastruktur und Technologie. Theoretisch könnte nämlich schon jetzt mit weniger als der bereits bestehenden Plantagenfläche der gesamte Pflanzenölbedarf der nächsten Jahrzehnte gedeckt werden.

Einfache Boykottaufrufe helfen eher nicht, denn viele Menschen vor Ort sind auf den Anbau von Pflanzenölen angewiesen. "Palmöl komplett zu boykottieren, das bedeutet auch, dass die Menschen vor Ort ihre Kinder nicht mehr zur Schule schicken können und Krankenhäuser nicht gebaut werden", sagt Wissenschaftler Erik Meijaard. Der Forscher Robert Beyer erinnert daran, dass es auch auf unseren Sonnenblumen- und Rapsfelden früher eine grössere Artenvielfalt gegeben habe. "Auf diesen Flächen haben einmal Wölfe und Bären gelebt. Das vergessen wir zu leicht."

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Organic standards address several environmental and social concerns. Restrictions on the use of chemicals on crops and pharmaceuticals on animals have positive impacts on both the environment and people. They promote not only farmer and food safety but also improved food quality (Giovannucci, 2006). 

Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) are standards to meet specific sustainability goals including human rights, income equality, health and safety, environmental protection, etc. The first VSS initiatives like Organic, Fairtrade, and Rainforest Alliance aimed specifically to fill the niche markets of green consumers. But as more international and/or nongovernment organisations participated in developing VSS, the goals shifted to transforming and mainstreaming market to address sustainable production and consumption (Potts, Voora, Lynch, & Mammadova, 2016).  

In addition, coconut also offers many opportunities for improving the environment by increasing carbon sequestration and reducing carbon emission. Coconut also has the most stable carbon storage because it is a perennial plant with almost zero burning in the Philippines, i.e. coconut trunks, leaves, and fruits are used.

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"Table 2 indicates that the same pattern of phytosterol in coconut meat from different sources. The phytosterol content found in the coconut meat from these sources ranged only from 19-26 mg per 100 g. However, the total phytosterol content in coconut meat from Indonesia was significantly higher than the others (P ≤ 0.05). β-sitosterol was the main phytosterol found and accounted more than 50% of the total content."

"The phytosterol content mainly as beta-sitosterol was highest in the coconut meat from Indonesia."

DOI: 10.12982/CMUJNS.2019.0037

Study: weak evidence

"Der Ertrag der Ölpalme liegt mit durchschnittlich etwa 3,8 Tonnen Öl pro Hektar weit über dem von Kokosöl mit 0,7 Tonnen Öl pro Hektar. Weitet sich der Trend, Palmöl durch Kokosöl zu ersetzen, aus, hätte das negative Effekte auf die Umwelt, da mehr Fläche benötigt würde. Überdies bedroht auch der Anbau von Kokospalmen die Artenvielfalt."

"Die Anbaubedingungen vor Ort müssen dringend verbessert werden. Und die Kleinbäuerinnen und Kleinbauern, sowohl im Kokosanbau als auch bei Palmöl, benötigen dringend Unterstützung. Beim Einsatz von jeglichen Pflanzenölen, egal ob aus Übersee oder aus heimischem Anbau, sollten strenge ökologische und soziale Kriterien erfüllt werden. Wie so oft zeigt die Biobranche den Weg. Sie hat auch im Kokosanbau vorbildliche Projekte mit Kleinbäuerinnen und Kleinbauern."

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"Economically, coconut farmers often depend solely on one primary commodity: copra and coconut grains. This reliance can lead to unstable economic conditions, as fluctuating copra and coconut prices directly affect household income. Additionally, many farmers lack the skills and knowledge needed for processing or diversifying coconut products, although every part of the fruit can be used to create economic value. A shortage of coconut farming and products also leads to shifts in local cultural behaviors and consumption patterns. The increasing price of coconut products in local markets is driving communities to switch to more affordable and available alternatives."

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"Leaving the deft-fingered macaques in the wild might deal quite the blow to the coconut biz. As NPR noted, males can harvest an average of 1,600 coconuts per day, while females can harvest 600. Compared with their less-evolved brethren, humans are real apes at this game, bringing home just 80 per day."

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Narratives Review

"The plant is originally from Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines) and the islands between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. From that region, the fruit of the coconut palm is believed to have been brought to India and then to East Africa. After the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, this plant was introduced into West Africa and, from there, dispersed to the American continent and to other tropical regions of the globe"

DOI: 10.1590/1414-431X20154773

Study: weak evidence