Färberdistelöl (roh?, bio?)

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Book: moderate evidence

The development of safflower with high oleic content (which enhanced the shelf life of safflower oil and was suitable for deep and refrying with all the advantages of polyunsaturated fatty acid oil) in the United States further widened its utilization and hence sustainability.

Safflower oil is the richest in polyunsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid, 77%). 

The medicinal properties of linoleic acid were first reported in the United States in the 1960s indicating its usefulness in lowering serum cholesterol levels in laboratory tests on animals and humans and reducing the risk of heart attacks.

Weiterführende Infos: Over a period of 30 years, the oil content was increased from 15% to 48–50% (Nutrasaff developed by J. W. Bergman’s Montana State University Safflower Breeding Program) thus achieving a 45% increase in oil levels (Mundel, 2008). The increase in oil content in the United States was attained incrementally by reducing hull content and using single genes such as those associated with striped hull, reduced hull, and partial hull (Mundel, 2008).

Buchkapitel

Book: moderate evidence

Most commercial safflower oil consists of 72–78% linoleic acid and represents cultivar and environmental effects on oil composition. Oleic acid is the second most common fatty acid and accounts for 15–20% of the fatty acids in safflower oil.

In contrast, by happenstance, a high-oleic acid safflower was identified in 1957 from seeds grown in India. The seed composition was 77–81% oleic acid and 10–15% linoleic, the opposite of traditional safflower. High-oleic acid safflower is available today due to commercial production of this cultivar

Anbau, Gattung: A number of locations have been proposed as the center of origin for safflower. These include Central Asia and the Middle East. Weiss provided an excellent historical perspective of safflower, which dates to 2000 BC in Egypt. The height of safflower production occurred shortly after World War II and has since been replaced with other oilseed crops. Safflower production ranks eighth among oilseeds. The evolutionary history of safflower has been documented to approximately 1753. Although C. tinctorius L. is the only cultivated species, there were as many as 25 species linked to the genus Carthamus. However, clarification over the last two decades supports the presence of approximately 15 species in the genus Carthamus. Much of the confusion around this genus was due to limited morphological observation such as spiny leaves or cypselas. The advent of molecular biology allowed for the differentiation of Carthamus species

A number of factors contribute to the growth characteristics of Carthamus species. However, much of the plant breeding efforts have focused on C. tinctorius L. Therefore, only this commercially relevant species will be presented in the remaining part of this article. Safflower is a thistle-like (Figure 1) plant with yellow, orange, red, or white flowers. Leaves of the mature plants are spiny in nature and thus compared to a thistle, while the seeds resemble a small sunflower (Figure 2). Germination of seeds occurs readily (i.e., 3–4 days) above 60
F, but growth slows during the rosette (i.e., a circular pattern of growth) stage that lasts up to 3 weeks. The development of a tap root, which can reach lengths of 305 cm, occurs during the rosette stage. This stage of growth is followed by a profuse branching stage of growth. Overall growth behavior is dictated by the plant population, where bush-type plants result from greater spacing, while closer spacing results in an upright plant form. Typical C. tinctorius L. plant heights range from 42 to 113 cm. However, plants can reach heights of 251 cm in Asia. The plant growth behavior also impacts seed yield. Bush-type plants yield greater numbers of flowers as each branch typically has five flowers with up to 50 flower heads per plant. Harvesting of seeds usually begins 30 days after maturing and seed moisture should not exceed 8% moisture. Much of the current breeding focus has been directed at improving oil composition

sonstige: In addition to their antioxidant activity, the pigments of the flowers have been used extensively as a food, cosmetic, and textile dye.

Buchkapitel

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00030-9

Book: moderate evidence

Many commonly used oils, including safflower, sunflower, soy, and corn oil are an important plant-based source of LA (n-6), whereas, ALA (n-3) is present in canola and soybean oil. ... Fresh seaweed is the only plant food that contains EPA or DHA. It is possible to get DHA and EPA from plant seed oils such as flaxseeds, since it contains ALA which is the precursor of DHA and EPA. Figures 5.6 & 5.7 represent the major source of n-3 PUFA in certain selected fish and vegetable oils (Alaswad et al., 2002). EPA and DHA are found higher in Mackeral followed by Albacore tuna. Among the plant source of ALA, flaxseed contained a higher amount (20.0 g/100 g) followed by butter nuts (dried, 8.7 g/100g) and English walnut (6.8 g/100g).

Buchkapitel

DOI: 10.1533/9781845696078.161

Book: moderate evidence

The polyunsaturated fatty acids in safflower oil suppress the level of low density lipoproteins (LDL, bad cholesterol). 

Anbau: An increasing trend for safflower production has been observed over previous few years as evident from increasing crop land at the rate of 4.9% per annum. An average global yield of safflower seeds has varied from 805 to 872 kg ha⁻¹ with an annual growth rate of 0.97% (Fig. 1a). Inspite being grown as a minor crop, production of safflower has gone upto 867,659 tonnes commercially at global level for year 2014 with an increasing rate of 5.6% per annum (Fig. 1a). Safflower is grown in more than 60 countries, however India, Kazakhstan, Mexico, USA and Argentina (Fig. 1b) are the leading countries for its production (FAOSTAT, 2015). The major production regions for this crop are America and Asia with a share of 93% cumulative production. There is a great potential in other regions to grow this crop especially Oceania and Africa (Fig. 1c) (FAOSTAT, 2015).

It is cultivated in Asia, North America and South America (Mihaela, Josef, Monica, & Rudolf, 2013). It can be grown almost in every part of the world in diversified environments owing to its ability to withstand drought, strong winds, hail storms and flooding. Tap root system of this plant makes it an ideal crop for arid agricultural land or areas with seasonal rains. 

Safflower oil composition and nutritional profile changes with growing conditions, soil type and varieties. The future use of safflower oil in different food products depends upon the availability and screening of the high yielding varieties. 

Herstellung: Diagramm in der Quelle

Öko: An innovative and modern extraction techniques is Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) which is considered to be a green processing technique i.e., environment friendly technique (Crampon et al., 2017, Han et al., 2009). Han et al. (2009) used Supercritical CO₂ (SC-CO₂) to extract safflower oil by changing operational parameters such as flow rate, temperature, pressure and particle size on a bench size apparatus. ... Moreover, lower temperature and smaller particle size favours the extraction efficiency. 

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.06.009

Study: weak evidence

Safflower oil is an excellent health care product (Pongracz et al., 1995; Abidi, 2001; Arslan et al., 2003), with health benefits that include prevention and treatment of hyperlipidemia, arteriosclerosis, coronary heart disease, blood pressure, osteoporosis, diabetes, cancer, and mineral metabolism (Pongracz et al., 1995; Herbel et al., 1998; Abidi, 2001; Weiss et al., 2005; Fasina et al., 2006). Herbel et al. (1998) reported that safflower oil in human diets significantly lowered plasma total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentrations.

Ölsäurereiches: Consumption of safflower oil high in oleic fatty acid has been correlated with improved liver and pancreas secretory activity and reduced risk of gastric-duodenal ulcers (Bermudez et al., 2011). The role of oleic acid in the maintenance of normal blood pressure has been confirmed by EFSA (2011) and FDA (2021).

Verwendung Küche: Safflower oil consistency remains the same at low temperatures (−12°C), making it suitable for frozen/chilled foods (Weiss, 2000). It is also used to prepare mayonnaise and salad dressings (Kleingarten, 1993; Nimbkar, 2002; Singh and Nimbkar, 2006). Safflower oil is also better suited to hydrogenation for margarine production than soy or canola oils (Kleingarten, 1993).

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-90537-4.00024-7

Book: moderate evidence

More recent research has shown substantial cholesterol lowering with HOSaO compared with extra virgin coconut oil. In a crossover supplemental feeding study of postmenopausal women, the addition of 30 mL of HOSaO to habitual intake lowered TC (− 1.6%) and LDL-C (− 3%) after 4 weeks, whereas intake of an isocaloric amount of virgin coconut oil increased TC (+ 8.3%) and LDL-C (+ 9.8%) from baseline. Thus, as expected, based on the fatty acid profiles of the fats/oils compared, the evidence to date shows that replacing fats high in SFAs (excluding stearic acid) with HOSaO decreases TC and LDL-C.

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-822912-5.00002-2

Book: moderate evidence

Whilst inflammation is a normal process that is part of host defense, excessive or unresolved inflammation can lead to uncontrolled tissue damage, pathology and disease. In humans on a Western diet, the omega-6 PUFA ARA makes a significant contribution to the fatty acids present in the membrane phospholipids of cells involved in inflammation. ARA is a precursor to a number of potent pro-inflammatory mediators including well described PGs and LTs, which has led to the development of anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals that target the ARA pathway to successfully control inflammation. Hence, it is commonly believed that increasing dietary intake of the omega-6 PUFAs ARA or its precursor LA will increase inflammation. However, studies in healthy human adults have found that increased intake of ARA or LA does not increase the concentrations of many inflammatory markers. Indeed, epidemiological studies have even suggested that ARA and LA may be linked to reduced inflammation. Contrastingly, there is also evidence that a high ARA diet inhibits the anti-inflammatory and inflammation-resolving effect of the omega-3 PUFAs EPA and DHA [57].

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2018.03.004

Study: weak evidence

Besides the amount of PUFA, the ratio of ω6/ω3 is known to be of nutritional importance as it is the key index for balanced synthesis of eicosanoids in the body (Steffens ¹⁹⁹⁷). For optimal infant nutrition, the ratio of n-6/n-3 must be not higher than 10 (Gerster ¹⁹⁹⁸). In Coastal states where mothers consumed high amounts of fish rich in n-3 PUFA, n-6/n-3 ratios were significantly lower than that of other countries (6.5 and 8.5, respectively) (Kneebone et al. ¹⁹⁸⁵; Boersma et al. ¹⁹⁹¹). High consumption of plant oils rich in n-6 PUFA and consumption of relatively low marine foods (as source of n-3 PUFA) increases the n-6/n-3 ratio. When one has a diet rich in ALA and lower LA consumption levels, EPA and DHA in muscle tissue increased due to reduced competition for Δ6 desaturase. In most Indian consumers, the n-6/n-3 intake ratio is equal to 1/30-70, but the ideal ratio is 1/5-10 to protect human health. Japanese are the only people who take an ideal ratio of 1/2-4 and this is due to their consumption of seafood (Aleksandra et al. ²⁰⁰⁹). In communities in the west, consumption of ω6 is much higher than that of ω3; such that in the United States, consumption of ω6 is 10–30 times more than that of ω3. Nutritional scientists suggest the 2:1 to 4:1 n-6/n-3 ratio, which indicates a high consumption of seafood (Aleksandra et al. ²⁰⁰⁹).

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.121

Study: weak evidence

Safflower oil is nonallergenic. Testing with the water-soluble protein fraction of the seed should be performed first by the scratch or puncture method.

The allergist’s increasing interest in safflower, aside from its nutritional import, lies in the fact that the safflower plant, as a, member of the composite family, is rela,ted to ragweed, the most important allergenic plant in the United States.

Übersichtsarbeit

DOI: 10.1016/0021-8707(64)90047-4

Study: weak evidence

In the theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), safflower is considered to promote blood circulation to remove blood stasis, promote menstruation and alleviate pain. 

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.10.050

Study: weak evidence

 In Indian traditional medicine, safflower is typically used for scabies, arthritis, and mastalgia. Also, this plant species finds a usual application for the treatment of amenorrhea, gastric tumors, as well as wounds, with internal or external origins among Chinese folklore. Of note, skin patches, baldness, phlegm, and colic can be treated by using safflower based on Iranian traditional medicine (5). The traditional use of safflower among Persian folklore is presented in Table 1. C. tinctorius has been utilized in Persian folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes, phlegmatic fever, melancholia, and dropsy (6, 27, 28). Additionally, various plants from Compositae family are traditionally used as an abortion-promoting agent. The water extract of safflower is applied in painful menstruation for sedation, as a laxative for constipation as well as an anti-inflammatory remedy in traditional medicine (29). The dried floret of C. tinctorius named Carthami flos has found great popularity due to its wide use in treating coronary heart disease, angina pectoris, gynecologic disease, stroke, and hypertension (30).

Seed oil Rheumatism and paralysis

Name: Carthamus tinctorius L., known as Kafesheh (Persian) and safflower (English) is vastly utilized in Traditional Medicine

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.19082/6672

Study: weak evidence

Cold pressed safflower oil has a relatively high phenolic content, particularly in terms of apigenin and luteolin. Additionally, this specialty oil contains significant amounts of a-tocopherol. The antioxidative characteristic of safflower oil is derived from phenolic compounds and tocopherol isomers. Other biologically active components of the oil are phytosterols such as b-sitosterol, d-7-stigmasterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, d-7-campesterol, d-7-avenasterol, and d-5-avenasterol. In general, cold pressed oils have higher phytochemical contents compared to refined oils, and retain their natural flavor and aroma.

According to Franke, Frohlich, Werner, Bohm, and Schone (2010), the safflower oil contained trace amounts of carotenoids such as 0.08mg/100 g of lutein, and 0.15mg/100 g of zeaxanthine.

Sonstige Anwendungen: 

Safflower oil has common applications in the food industry due to the high MUFA and PUFA content. It may also be used entirely or in combination with other oils as biodiesel. The utilization of safflower oil in combination with castor oil to produce lower viscosity biodiesel was reported (Thomas, Birney, & Auld, 2012). Safflower oil has a high nutritional value and many biological activities. The incorporation of safflower oil will increase the biological activities of the diet, thereby helping to reduce animal and human alimentations (Alizadeh et al., 2012). As a potential bioactive food ingredient, it can be integrated into various cosmetics, health supplements, pharmaceuticals, food products, and beverages, and used as a fortificant for feed. Because of the incidents of increase in ruminant body mass and milk yield, safflower seeds are used in ruminants’ diets in more than 60 countries (Alizadeh et al., 2012). Moreover, feeding safflower oil to lambs increased the content of unsaturated fatty acids in muscle tissues (Kott et al., 2003). Supplementation of 10–30 g safflower oil in goat diets has been shown to ameliorate the milk fat composition (Shi, Luo, Zhang, & Sheng, 2015). Furthermore, the combination of safflower oil and monensin increased the concentration of conjugated linoleic acid in bovine milk (Bell, Griinari, & Kennelly, 2006)

Industrielle Herstellung: Vegetable oils can be obtained from oilseeds using different types of press systems, solvent extractors, or a combination of both...With mechanical pressing, which is a simple and safe technique, more oil remains in the meal than by solvent extraction. Heating is not applied to oilseeds during cold pressing; moreover, the oilseeds processed by this technique must be very clean, uniform, and have an appropriate moisture level (Aydeniz, G€uneser, & Yılmaz, 2014). By this technique a very pure yield of safe, nutritionally rich, and sensorially acceptable virgin oils can be obtained, which do not require refining and are consumable directly. Nevertheless, the oil yield is lower than with hot pressing and solvent extraction. In order to increase the oil yield of cold pressing systems, some pretreatments are applied to oil seeds before pressing, such as microwave treatment, steaming, enzyme application, and preroasting... On the other hand, cold press-produced virgin seed oils do not need expensive refining procedures. Only centrifugation or filtration is necessary to obtain edible quality oils. In addition, minor nutrients, which are mostly lost during chemical refining, are retained in cold pressed oils. A producer will prefer a production type depending on the aim of production, end uses of both oil and meal, and the amount of the seed that must be processed. Unquestionably, solvent extraction and/or full expeller pressing are the major oil production techniques wordwide. Cold pressed oils are produced only for unique uses and demands.

"4 Minor bioactive lipids in cold pressed oil"

The high content of linoleic acid in safflower oil improves the quality and appearance of skin. Therefore, it is frequently used in formulations of skin conditioners and other cosmetics for handled acne vulgaris (Toombs, 2005). Safflower oil also promotes hair and scalp health, wherein numerous patents describe the usage of safflower oil in combination with other oils or as a separate ingredient in the formulation of many cosmetics and herbal products.

Übersichtsarbeit (Buchkapitel)

DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-818188-1.00029-3

Study: weak evidence

Safflower seeds 6000 938 283 7221

7221 Total

Untersuchung zum Wasserverbrauch von Lebensmitteln

DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011

Saflor-/Distelöl wird aus den Samen (ca. 50% Öl) von Carthamus tinctorius L. durch Pressung/Extraktion erhalten. Das goldgelbe bis rötliche Speiseöl (68–83% C18:2) wird auch in der Lackindustrie verwendet. Ölsäurereiche Sorten enthalten 70–83% Ölsäure

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-01685-1

Book: moderate evidence

Safflower Injection

Safflower injection is made from a Chinese materia medica, Carthami Flos (Honghua) and is commonly used to treat cardiovascular diseases. During 2012, the database of National Centre for ADR Monitoring in China had collected 3306 cases of adverse reactions associated with Safflower injection, mainly involving allergic reaction in the skin and respiratory system and its appendices, and arrhythmia. Among them, 154 cases (4.66%) were considered to be serious [11^S]. It has been also reported to cause haematuria [12^A].

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63407-8.00048-4

Study: weak evidence

Herbal injections are one kind of the modern preparations derived from traditional Chinese medicine. With their powerful therapeutic effects on specific diseases (e.g. cardiovascular disease, cancer), herbal injections are attracting more and more attention in mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan [1]. Currently, more than 130 types of herbal injections are used clinically among about 400 million patients annually with total sales over four billion US dollars per year [2]. However, there have been reports of herbal injections causing serious adverse drug reactions (ADR) [3,4]. Besides, data from China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) showed that 127 thousand cases of ADR were induced by herbal injections, and it is estimated to account for 51.3% of ADR induced by traditional Chinese medicine [5]. Because a considerable number of adverse reactions could be attributed to the quality, CFDA has made an announcement to improve the quality standards of herbal injections [6]. Therefore, it is important to develop the quality standards of herbal injections to ensure their clinical safety.

Experimentelle Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.11.069

Study: weak evidence

 In the case of safflower oil it was 8.65 and decreased with time to 8.47 (20 °C) and 8.23 (40 °C), because of lowering content of linoleic acid. These values indicate higher susceptibility to oxidation of safflower than pumpkin oil.

Experimentelle Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1007/s11694-019-00370-7

Study: weak evidence

Tabellen mit CO₂-Emissionen 

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Moreover, safflower exhibit deep root system and xerophytic spines (adaptive traits) that represent its ability to tolerate drought and heat, and therefore would be competent climate-resilient crop. Nutritionally safflower oil is very important for medicinal purpose and economical level also which is due to presence of low amount of saturated fatty acids (palmitic and stearic acids) and high amount of unsaturated fatty acids (oleic and linoleic acids) that minimize the risk of cardiovascular and other severe diseases. However, promising safflower crop has not been utilized up to its potential by reason of low yield, spines, and disease susceptibility.

Übersichtsarbeit

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-9001-3_16

This study provides information on safflower oil yield and quality as influenced by organic fertilisation (V, KH) and CF. The results clearly demonstrate that some organic treatments had significant effects on oil yield, oil concentration and FA composition in both years. Among the organic treatments, 9 t ha−1 V at 1 and 1.5 l ha−1 KH enhanced oil concentration, yield and quality compared with the CF treatment. A lower level of saturated FA and a higher level of unsaturated FA were observed in organic treatments than with CF in both years in which unsaturated FA were higher in 2013. Therefore, seed Table 5. Comparison means of safflower FAs in organic treatments (V: vermicompost, KH: K-humate) and chemical fertilisation. Note: Mean values in each column with the same letter(s) are not significantly different using DMRT at p < 0.05 level. Treatment Traits Year V (t ha−1) KH (l ha−1) Stearic acid (%) Palmitic acid (%) Oleic acid Linoleic acid (%) Linolenic acid (%) Arachidonic acid (%) 2012 0 0 2.2 e 9.0 b 18.1 a 69.7 z 0.39 d 0.13 g 0 0.5 2.3 d 8.9 c 18.0 b 70.3 z 0.24 m 0.15 e 0 1 2.6 a 8.5 d 17.8 c 70.9 y 0.00 v 0.13 g 0 1.5 2.6 a 8.3 e 17.1 f 71.0 x 0.41 c 0.14 ef 3 0 2.4 c 8.2 f 16.7 h 71.8 w 0.42 b 0.15 e 3 0.5 2.5 b 7.7 g 16.6 i 71.9 v 0.37 e 0.18 d 3 1 2.5 b 7.7 g 17.1 f 71.9 v 0.42 b 0.08 k 3 1.5 2.5 b 7.7 g 16.9 g 72 u 0.39 d 0.21 a 6 0 2.2 e 7.7 g 17.2 e 72.1 t 0.31 h 0.11 i 6 0.5 2.4 c 7.3 j 16.5 j 72.9 r 0.09 v 0.20 b 6 1 2.3 d 7.3 j 16.2 l 73.3 q 0.35 p 0.15 e 6 1.5 2.1 f 7.5 h 16.4 k 73.7 p 0.16 s 0.00 m 9 0 2.1 f 7.3 j 15.9 n 73.9 o 0.33 g 0.19 c 9 0.5 2.1 f 7.2 k 15.8 o 74.2 n 0.30 i 0.15 e 9 1 2.0 g 6.9 m 15.8 o 74.5 m 0.43 a 0.07 l 9 1.5 2.0 g 6.9 m 16.0 m 74.6 l 0.24 m 0.09 j CF 2.2 e 9.8 a 17.5 d 72.7 s 0.28 j 0.14 f 2013 0 0 2.3 d 6.9 m 13.7 q 76.4 k 0.21 p 0.11 i 0 0.5 2.2 e 6.9 m 13.6 r 76.4 k 0.24 m 0.12 gh 0 1 2.1 f 6.8 n 13.5 s 76.8 j 0.25 l 0.12 gh 0 1.5 2.2 e 6.6 p 13.6 r 76.9 i 0.25 l 0.08 k 3 0 2.2 e 6.6 p 13.5 s 77 h 0.22 o 0.13 g 3 0.5 2.2 e 6.7 o 13.6 r 77 h 0.18 r 0.13 g 3 1 2.2 e 6.6 p 13.5 s 77 b 0.21 p 0.10 ij 3 1.5 2.2 e 6.7 o 13.6 r 77.1 g 0.23 n 0.10 ij 6 0 2.2 e 6.6 p 13.6 r 77.2 f 0.14 t 0.10 ij 6 0.5 2.2 e 6.4 r 13.3 t 77.3 e 0.26 k 0.13 g 6 1 2.3 d 6.3 s 13.2 u 77.6 d 0.16 s 0.10 ij 6 1.5 2.2 e 6.3 s 13.1 v 77.8 c 0.20 q 0.10 ij 9 0 2.0 g 6.5 q 12.8 x 78.1 b 0.20 q 0.19 c 9 0.5 2.1 f 6.3 s 12.9 w 78.1 b 0.20 q 0.15 e 9 1 2.2 e 6.2 t 12.9 w 78.3 a 0.14 t 0.08 k 9 1.5 1.0 h 7.0 l 12.9 w 78.3 a 0.22 o 0.11 i CF 2.5 b 7.4 i 15.4 p 73.9 o 0.22 o 0.10 ij 2012 2.3 a 7.9 a 16.8 a 72.5 b 0.30 a 0.13 a 2013 2.1 b 6.6 b 13.5 b 77.1 a 0.21 b 0.11 b Downloaded by [University of Otago] at 00:46 20 October 2015 8 M. Hajghani et al. oil obtained from safflower cultivated under organic farming could be a better source of edible oil due to the presence of higher unsaturated FA. Thus, the simultaneous use of V and foliar spraying of KH had a positive effect on oil quantity and quality probably due to the beneficial effects of V on soil microbial biomass and enzymatic activity as well as auxin-like activity of KH. Applying organic fertiliser such as V in bulk raises economic concerns in the minds of farmers who wish to opt for organic farming. In the present research, it has been concluded that lower rates of V (3 and 6 t ha−1) along with foliar application of KH (1 and 1.5 l ha−1) compared with the higher amounts of V (9 t ha−1) without spraying KH led to equal or even higher oil content and yield. The use of even higher concentration of KH and combined application of KH with other organic fertilisers in the soil comparing would be useful topics for future research

DOI: 10.1080/01448765.2015.1094674

Art. 3a und 3b.

Art. 2b

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Artikel 5 a) und b). 14.1.2012.

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Live footprint: 1.71 kg CO₂e/kg

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Results
An increase in the final body weight, total body weight gain, total feed intake, and the relative growth rate (P <  0.05) were reported by safflower oil and vitamin C inclusion. Dietary supplementation of safflower oil and vitamin C had a positive effect (P <  0.05) on the ingestive, resting, and feather preening behavior. Vitamin C supplementation increased (P <  0.05) the AID% of lysine, threonine, tryptophan, arginine, and valine. Safflower inclusion (10 g/kg) increased (P <  0.05) the AID% of methionine and isoleucine. Safflower oil inclusion increased (P <  0.05) the levels of stearic acid, linoleic acid, saturated fatty acids, and omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3) in the breast muscle. In contrast, the supplementation of only 10 g of safflower oil/kg diet increased (P = 0.01) the omega-3/omega-6 (ω-3/ω-6) fatty acids ratio. Vit. C supplementation increased (P <  0.05) the CAT serum levels, SOD, and GSH enzymes. Dietary supplementation of safflower oil and vitamin C improved the intestinal histology. They increased the villous height and width, crypt depth, villous height/crypt depth ratio, mucosal thickness, goblet cell count, and intra-epithelium lymphocytic lick cell infiltrations. The serum levels of IgA and complement C3 were increased (P <  0.01) by Vit. C supplementation and prominent in the 400 vit. C +  10 safflower Oil group.

Conclusion
A dietary combination of safflower oil and vitamin C resulted in improved growth rate, amino acids AID%, intestinal histology, welfare, immune and antioxidant status of birds, and obtaining ω-3 and linoleic acid-enriched breast muscles. The best inclusion level was 400 vit. C +  10 safflower Oil.

In-vivo-Tierstudie

DOI: 10.1186/s12917-021-02773-5

Study: weak evidence

The screw press operates as follows: cleaned safflower seeds are loaded into the feed hopper and enter the pressing chamber. As a result of the gradual narrowing of the press screw channel in the direction of product movement under the action of longitudinal pressure, oil flows out through the openings of the serrated cylinder into a special oil collection tank. The pressure in the pressing chamber is controlled by our proposed pressure control mechanism.

As a result, the oil yield is increased, the quality of the extracted oil is improved, the rapid wear of the working components is prevented, and overall efficiency increases.

Laborstudie / experimentelle Studie

DOI: 10.3390/foods13121909

Study: weak evidence

Ist keine andere Kennzeichnung wie „nativ“ oder „kalt gepresst“ genannt, handelt es sich in der Regel um raffiniertes Speiseöl. Bei der Herstellung wird das Öl unter Wärmezufuhr aus der Ölsaat oder -frucht gepresst und/oder mit Lösungsmittel herausgelöst. Damit es geniessbar und länger haltbar ist, werden unerwünschte Bestandteile mittels Raffination entfernt. Hierbei gehen wertvolle Inhaltsstoffe wie Vitamin E und sekundäre Pflanzenstoffe wie Phytosterine und Carotinoide verloren, was jedoch bei einer ausgewogenen Ernährung keine grosse Rolle spielt.

Nach der Raffination sind die Öle hell, klar, geschmacks- und weitestgehend geruchsneutral. Dadurch sind sie in der Küche universell einsetzbar – vorausgesetzt sie haben keinen hohen Gehalt an mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren. Je höher der Gehalt an mehrfach ungesättigten Fettsäuren, desto weniger verträgt es Hitze. Lein- und Distelöl beispielsweise sind für hohe Temperaturen daher ungeeignet.

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smoke point °C

Safflower, regular 230 

Safflower, high oleic 242

Buchkapitel

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-9830791-5-6.50012-5

Book: moderate evidence

FFA, which showed the highest regression coefficient, was negatively related to the smoke point, in agreement with previous literature [21,24]. In contrast, SFA was positively related to the smoke point. This parameter ranged from 12.5% to 19.8%, consisting mainly of palmitic acid and, to a lesser extent, stearic acid (see Table S6 in the Supplementary Materials). This positive relationship could be related to the higher oxidative stability of SFAs and, consequently, to their lower susceptibility to generate volatile oxidation compounds. Actually, the energy required to generate an alkyl radical increases in this order: linoleic (C18:2) < oleic (C18:1) < stearic acid (C18:0), which justifies their different oxidation rate during thermal oxidation or autoxidation [12]. Therefore, unsaturated FA oxidize and break down into volatile compounds more easily; consequently, oils with comparable FA chain lengths but higher unsaturation tend to have lower smoke points. This explains why virgin olive oils with higher SFA content exhibit higher smoke points.

Experimentelle Querschnittsstudie

DOI: 10.3390/foods14234099

Study: moderate evidence

Unrefined safflower oil: 107°C

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