Chinakohl (roh, bio?)

Nährstofftabellen.

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"Er enthält sehr wenig Kohlenhydrate, Fette und Eiweiss und daher auch wenig Kalorien. Dafür liefert er viel Beta-Karotin (Provitamin A) und eine beträchtliche Menge Vitamin C."

Book: moderate evidence

"In this study, 0.25 μg/ml aflatoxin B₁ was used to establish a liver cancer model for assessing the potential anticancer ability of Chinese cabbage powder, which is a complex water-soluble extract from Chinese cabbage by spray-drying at an outlet temperature of 130 °C. We found at least 11 potential anticancer substances in Chinese cabbage powder. A 90-d animal experiment demonstrated that 10% of Chinese cabbage powder in drinking water could improve the plasma micronutrient status, inhibit the formation of aflatoxin B1-DNA adducts in liver cells, and effectively reduce the incidence of liver tumor induced by aflatoxin B₁ from 6.67% to 0%. The dose effect experiment revealed that 10% may be the minimal effective dose to prevent the occurrence of early liver tumors."

"Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis L.) originated from northern China, and it was introduced into Japan, Europe, and the United States in the 19th century."

"According to traditional Chinese medicine theory, Chinese cabbage can promote gastrointestinal function, remove chest congestion, and reduce alcoholism (Shizhen, 1596, Xuemin, 1765)."

"Chinese cabbage contains several agents commonly found in cruciferous plants, including oltipraz, phenethyl isothiocyanate, chlorophyllin, and dithiolethiones, which have also demonstrated inhibitory effects on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) (Mehta et al., 1994, Suzuki et al., 2013)."

Experimentelle Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.02.138

Study: weak evidence

"Later developmental stages in white (B. oleracea var. capitata) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. pekinensis) are characterized by a significant increase in total flavonoid contents from four weeks after germination to week twelve followed by a gradual decrease"

"heir high intraspecific variability extends to secondary metabolites produced by Brassica plants, among them glucosinolates and flavonoids [2,3]. The latter play an important role in ultraviolet (UV) protection since UV-B responsive flavonoids can reduce the risk of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and thereby prevent oxidative damage [4]. Therefore, the impact of flavonoids on the human body after food consumption as well as their effect as pharmaceutical supplements was discussed in several reviews [5,6,7,8]. Particularly relevant are their antioxidative activity and radical scavenging capacity [5]. So far, flavonoids are known to protect against the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease [9]."

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.3390/molecules22020252

Study: weak evidence

"Outer leaf of Chinese cabbage had the highest levels of antioxidant capacities and polyphenolics."

"Sinapic acid showed the highest contents in Chinese cabbage leaves."

"In Korea, Chinese cabbage is the principal ingredient of kimchi, which is a salted and fermented dish including whole cabbage leaves."

"The outer leaf had the strongest antioxidant activity with the maximum antioxidant contents, followed by the mid- and inner leaves. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that outer leaf is positively related to caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and myricetin contents, whereas the mid- and inner leaves are negatively related to sinapic acid contents."

"With respect to its health benefits, the dietary antioxidants in Chinese cabbage have been extensively studied for their ability to prevent reactive oxygen species (ROS), which mediate aging and oxidative damage-inducing pathological disorders such as inflammation and atherosclerosis (Huxley and Neil, 2003, Ji et al., 2011). In addition, several antioxidant phenolic compounds including flavonoids were investigated and identified in whole Chinese cabbage leaves (Harbaum et al., 2007, Kim et al., 2006, Miean and Mohamed, 2001, Roy et al., 2007)"

Laborexperiment in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.066

Study: weak evidence

"Copper is among the major heavy metal contaminants in the environment with various anthropogenic and natural sources. Human health risk from heavy metal bioaccumulation in vegetables has been a subject of growing concern in recent years."

"These results showed that although the plants accumulated an elevated copper content and suffered damage to some extent under Cu treatment, they looked healthy. It was suggested that Chinese cabbage with an elevated Cu content and without showing visible symptoms of damage possibly could cause a risk to human health from the transfer of the metal in food. "

Experimentelle Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1002/tox.20094

Study: weak evidence

"Heavy metal (HM) contamination in soil result in second pollution damage to Chinese cabbage, leading to deleterious health impacts. To elucidate the common transfer and accumulation characteristics of HMs in Chinese cabbage cultivar is important for safety breeding and consumption. In this case, concentrations and transfer capacities of HMs (Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb and As) in 35 common Chinese cabbage genotypes and their genotypic difference were investigated in this work. Results indicate that Chinese cabbage cultivar was more susceptible to Cd pollution, Hg was easily sifted from underground part to aerial part, Cr and Pb have similar enrichment and translocation characteristics, and Chinese cabbage cultivar had tolerance to As toxicity to some extent. "

Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.01.022

Study: weak evidence

"Celery and Chinese cabbage constitute the major contribution (about 57% of total nitrate) to the average nitrate intake of the north Chinese because of their higher nitrate content. It must be emphasized that nine vegetables in table 3 only accounted for 80% of the total consumption in the north Chinese diet. The other 20% include many di€erent kinds of vegetables that are supposed to have the same distributions of nitrate and nitrite as in the other 80%. If all vegetables were included, the total nitrate and nitrite intakes from vegetables were about 528.5 and 0.85 mg day"

"As mentioned above, the nitrate accumulation in vegetables is a€ected by many factors, among which fertilizer application is the major one. Nitrate accu- mulation in vegetables often depends on the amounts and kinds of nutrients present in the soil and espe- cially is closely related to the amounts of the fertilizers applied and the time of application. Some studies indicate that the proper application of nitrogenous, phosphate, potassium fertilizer, and green and farm- yard manure could signi®cantly reduce nitrate accu- mulation in vegetables"

"Anther reason for the high level of nitrate in celery and Chinese cabbage may be the hydroponic cultivation method. Our experiment shows that the NO3 ± contents of celery were mostly dependent on the cultivation method and that celery cultivated by a hydroponic method contained 4500± 9850 mg kg±1 whereas that cultivated by conventional methods contained 550±980 mg kg±1 ."

Analytische Laborstudie

DOI: 10.1080/0265203021000014806

Study: weak evidence

"Glucosinolates (GSLs) are sulfur-containing secondary metabolites found mainly in plants of the Brassicaceae family [19]. They are the major group of phytochemicals found in cabbage [20]."

"The hydrolysis products of glucosinolates include isothiocyanates (ITCs), epithionitriles (EPTs), and nitriles, based on factors like pH, availability of ferrous ions, the compound’s side chain, and substrate type [24]. ITCs, the main products of GSL hydrolysis, are mostly responsible for the health-promoting properties of cabbage, such as reduced risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease [25]."

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

DOI: 10.3390/foods13213395

Study: weak evidence

"Biobauern macht er in seinen 9-12 Wochen Wachstum das Leben nicht leicht: Sie können sich nie darauf verlassen, dass die weisslich-grünen Köpfe des zumeist nur als Hybride beschaffbaren Kohls in der nächsten Generation gleiche Qualität bieten."

"Aber schon jetzt liefern Biobauern die bessere Qualität, denn sie verzichten bei dem Starkzehrer auf chemische Düngung und synthetischen Pflanzen- und Insektenschutz."

Book: weak evidence

"Cruciferous vegetables are a rich source of glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products, including indoles and isothiocyanates, and high intake of cruciferous vegetables has been associated with lower risk of lung and colorectal cancer in some epidemiological studies."

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2007.01.009

Study: weak evidence

"Chinakohl benötigt teifgründige, lockere und gehaltvolle Böden. Empfohlen wird ein ph-Wert von 6 bis 7. Der Standort sollte sonnig bis halbschattig sein. Achte darauf, dass der Chinakohl windgeschützt ist. Er ist ein Starkzehrer und benötigt sehr viel Wasser. Aber achte darauf, dass keine Staunässe entsteht."

"Die Aussaat von Chinakohl sollte Ende Juli erfolgen, denn er neigt zum Schiessen, sät man ihn früher aus, bei späterer Aussaat ist der Ernteerfolg ungewiss. Gib etwas Kompost in das Pflanzenloch. Nach der Keimung wird er auf einen Pflanzabstand von circa 30 cm und auf einen Reihenabstand von 40 cm vereinzelt. Alternativ lege direkt zwei bis drei Saatkörner in einem Abstand von 30 cm in den Boden. Achte darauf, die Pflanzen gerade am Anfang nicht austrocknen zu lassen und immer gut zu giessen."

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Achte darauf, dass der Boden vor der Aussaat oder Pflanzung gründlich gelockert wurde und ausreichend mit Nährstoffen versorgt ist. Dies kann neben Kompostgaben etwa über eine Düngung mit Hornspänen erreicht werden. Auch ist darauf zu achten, dass Du einen Platz auswählst, auf dem vorher keine Kohlsorte gewachsen ist, um Kohlhernie zu vermeiden. Wenn der Chinakohl seinen Kopf bildet, sollte er feucht gehalten werden, da er in dieser Zeit mehr Wasser benötigt."

"Die Ernte von Chinakohl erfolgt hauptsächlich im Oktober, wenn die Köpfe ganz geschlossen sind. Hierzu schneide den kompletten Kopf nah am Boden ab und entferne gegebenenfalls die äusseren Blätter. Du kannst auch eine frühere Ernte ausprobieren, denn Chinakohl treibt immer wieder nach, so dass Du auch nach der Haupternte noch weiter Blätter ernten kannst. Für die Einlagerung empfiehlt sich die Ernte mitsamt dem Wurzelballen."

"Folgende Schädlinge können den Chinakohl während seines Wachstums befallen: Erdflöhe, Kohlfliege, Blattläuse, Kohlweisslingsraupen und die Kohlmottenschildlaus. Die Gefahr der Kohlhernie tritt überall dort auf, wo zu intensiv Kohl angebaut und keine Fruchtfolge eingehalten wird. Ebenso können Bakterienfäule oder zu Beginn auch Keimlingskrankheiten auftreten."

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"Stir-frying retains the glucosinolates even at the highest temperature applied. Such retention is explained by the quick inactivation of the glucosinolate-hydrolytic enzyme myrosinase during the first minutes of frying, and by the thermal stability of the glucosinolates at those temperature/time conditions. Moreover, due to the absence of a separate water phase, leaching losses did not occur, in contrast to what is observed when boiling Brassica vegetables. These results show that stir-frying may be a suitable health-beneficial cooking option that prevents the loss of glucosinolates."

"Stir-frying, a popular method to prepare vegetables in Southeast Asian countries [1], is becoming more common nowadays elsewhere in the world. Stir-frying is a quick food preparation method by heat transfer from a hot pan surface to foods, using a small amount of cooking oil."

"Glucosinolates (GSs), secondary metabolites present in Brassica vegetables, have been widely investigated to play an important role in this health promoting property. Isothiocyanates, one class of GS breakdown products, have been reported to have the ability to prevent many chronic diseases"

"Upon the applied stir-frying processes, the concentration of all the glucosinolates did not decrease. The retention of glucosinolates is explained by (1) the lack leaching of these compounds into the cooking water, (2) the low thermal degradation rate of glucosinolate at those temperature/time conditions (3) the fact that the temperature in most of the plant tissue cannot exceed 100 °C (because of the water content) preventing the glucosinolate thermal degradation, and (4) the fast inactivation of myrosinase, preventing enzymatic glucosinolate hydrolysis during cooking. Therefore, a short stir-frying is a suitable cooking option to retain glucosinolate content in both vegetables, regardless the temperature applied."

Experimentelle Studie und Lebensmittelanalyse

DOI: 10.1007/s11130-017-0646-x

Study: weak evidence

"Several classes of secondary metabolites such as carotenoids, flavonoids, glucosinolates (GSLs), and other phytochemicals have been identified and quantified from the Chinese cabbage. Their compositions and contents depended on the cultivation conditions (Reif et al., 2013, Lee et al., 2015)."

"The phytochemicals, especially GSLs and other functional compounds exhibit potential medical applications such as antidiabetic and anti-cancer agents; therefore, the interest toward this vegetable is increasing worldwide."

"Among the pigments, α- and β-carotene are the main backbone and intermediary metabolites for the synthesis of vitamin A. Vitamin A protects the human body from xerophthalmia, blindness, and premature death. Moreover, lutein and zeaxanthin have recently been recognized to be beneficial for eye health to the prevention of age-related macular degeneration (Krishnadev et al., 2010)."

Table 3: Glucosinolates identified in Chinese cabbage.

Table 5: Carotenoid contents (mg kg⁻¹ DW) in eleven varieties of Chinese cabbage.

"MS and HPLC analysis identified the presence of 13 GSLs (progoitrin, sinigrin, glucoalyssin, gluconapoleiferin, gluconapin, glucocochlearin, glucobrassicanapin, glucoerucin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, glucobrassicin, 4-methoxyglucobrassicin, neoglucobrassicin and gluconasturtiin) and four carotenoids (lutein, zeaxanthin, α-carotene and β-carotene). GSL contents were varied among the different cabbage varieties. The total GSL content ranged from 2.7 to 57.88 μmol/g DW. The proportion of gluconapin (54%) and glucobrassicanapin (22%) was higher in all the varieties, respectively. Results documented the variation in total and individual carotenoid contents that have also been observed among different varieties; however, the total carotenoid contents ranged from 289.12 to 1001.41 mg kg⁻¹ DW (mean 467.66). Interestingly, the proportion of lutein (66.5) and β-carotene (25.9) were higher than α-carotene (5.1) and zeaxanthin (2.5%)."

"In summary, the expression pattern of MYB transcription factors and carotenogenesis genes involved in GSL and carotenoid biosynthesis in eleven varieties of Chinese cabbage was observed. Remarkable differences in the GSL and carotenoid contents were observed among different varieties. Chinese cabbage contained rich content of anti-carcinogenic GSLs and carotenoids for human daily consumption."

Molekularbiologische Charakterisierung ohne klinische Evidenz

DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.04.004

Study: weak evidence

This study aimed to comprehensively examine the interface between primary and secondary metabolites in oval- and rectangular-shaped Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis) using gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In addition to differences in shape, there was significant morphological variation between the two cultivars. The rectangular variety had greater height and deeper green color, whereas the oval variety had more leaves and greater width. A total of 42 primary metabolites identified by GC-TOFMS were subjected to partial least-squares discriminant, which indicated significant differences in the primary and secondary metabolisms of the two cultivars. Furthermore, total glucosinolate and phenolic contents were higher in the oval cultivar, whereas the rectangular cultivar contained a higher level of total carotenoids. This metabolome study comprehensively describes the relationship between primary and secondary metabolites in the oval and rectangular cultivars of Chinese cabbage and provides information useful for developing strategies to enhance the biosynthesis of glucosinolates, phenolics, and carotenoids in Chinese cabbage. Additionally, this work highlights that HPLC and GC-TOFMS–based metabolite profiling is suitable techniques to determine metabolic differences in Chinese cabbage.

Laborstudie

DOI: 10.3390/foods8110587

Study: weak evidence

"Values for Nei-Li similarities suggest that Chinese cabbage is more likely to have been produced by hybridization of turnip and pakchoi than as a selection from either turnip or pakchoi alone."

"Although Chinese cabbage originated in China sometime before the 10th century (Li, 198 1), Brassica rapa ssp. rapifera (Metzg.) Sinsk. (turnip) in northern China and ssp. chinensis (L.) Makino (pakchoi) in southern China have been cultivated much longer, at least since the 5th century B.C. (Li, 1981). Li (1981) has suggested, therefore, that ssp. pekinensis originated in central China by hybridization between ssp. rapifera and ssp. chinensis, since the latter two subspecies were commonly grown together historically and had ample oppor-tunity to interbreed."

Laborstudie

DOI: 10.21273/JASHS.120.3.548

Study: weak evidence

"Our analyses point to the Aegean endemic B. cretica as the closest living relative of cultivated B. oleracea, supporting an origin of cultivation in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Additionally, we identify several feral lineages, suggesting that cultivated plants of this species can revert to a wild-like state with relative ease."

Ökologische Modellierungsstudie

DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msab183

Cabbage, Chinese, pak choi 0,29

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Fig. 1. Estimated global variation in GHG emissions, land use, terrestrial acidification, eutrophication, and scarcity-weighted freshwater withdrawals, within and between 40 major foods.

DOI: 10.1126/science.aaq0216

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Chinakohl
478 g CO₂/ (1/3 des Nährstoff-Tagesbedarf)

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358 Cabbages and other brassicas 181 26 73 280

DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011

Nuts 7,016 1367 680 9,063 

Beef 14,414 550 451 15,415

DOI: 10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8

Mittels umfangreicher Analyse der Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher Produktionsmethoden auf den Klimawandel und unter Berücksichtigung aller quantifizierbaren treibhausrelevanten Prozesse zeigen die Studienautorinnen- und -autoren die CO₂-Einsparungspotentiale biologischer Lebensmittel auf.
Die bisherigen Ergebnisse lassen sich wie folgt zusammenfassen:
Alle Bio-Produkte der Marke „Zurück zum Ursprung“ (österreichische Bio-Marke) haben eine bessere CO₂-Bilanz als vergleichbare konventionelle Produkte.

• Milchprodukte: 10-21% weniger CO₂-Emissionen (bezogen auf 1 kg Produkt)
• Weizenbrot: 25% weniger CO₂-Emissionen (bezogen auf 1 kg Produkt)
• Gemüse: 10-35 % weniger CO₂-Emissionen (bezogen auf 1 kg Produkt)

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However, by the year 2020, the global pesticide usage has been estimated to increase up to 3.5 million tonnes. Although pesticides are benefcial for crop production point of view, extensive use of pesticides can possess serious consequences because of their bio-magnifcation and persistent nature. Diverse pesticides directly or indirectly polluted air, water, soil and overall ecosystem which cause serious health hazard for living being.

These pesticides can migrate and get accumulated in the upper trophic levels of food chain. Pesticide contamination is a serious problem for each ecosystem and is harmful for all associated organisms

DOI: 10.1007/s42452-019-1485-1

Verbot der Verwendung chemisch synthetischer Pflanzenschutzmittel und synthetischer Düngemittel

Book: weak evidence

"This vegetable is of major importance in China, Korea and Japan. Other Asian countries also have significant production. It is grown to a lesser extent in cooler climates of North America, Europe, Australia and South America where it is a minor vegetable."

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