Kokosöl - Gesundheit

Narratives Review / Expertenstatement

DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510

Study: weak evidence

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randomisierte Kontrollstudie RCT (Crossover-Design)

Study: strong evidence

randomisierte Kontrollstudie, RCT (Crossover-Design)

Study: strong evidence

Website

Narratives Review

Coconut is one of the most important tree crops in the tropical region of the world securing food and shelter for millions of people. Coconut tree is grown in more than 93 countries around the world in an area of 11.95 million hector producing 57,510 million coconuts annually [1]. Virgin coconut oil (VCO) was introduced to the world at the end of twentieth century. It is being considered as the greatest value derived from the fresh coconut [2].  Various methods have been employed to extract the coconut oil, but whichever method have been used it is still the best to avoid oil that has been refined, bleached or deodourized. This is because when the coconut oil undergo these processes, the health benefit, taste and the aroma will be reduced [3, 5]. As VCO contains large amount of high value compounds, its importance has been given more and more attention by the industry throughout the years. This results in the development of various extraction processes, each with its respective advantages and limitations. Therefore, it is crucial for the industry to choose the most suitable extraction process to avoid breaking down of the high value compounds.

When fed with hot extracted virgin coconut oil, the total change in cholesterol level of the male Wistar albino rats had decreased more when compared with cold extracted virgin coconut oil [18]. 

Virgin coconut oil has many uses in our daily life as well as industrial applications. This will give a positive result to the market demand and the industry may apply the methods mentioned above to extract coconut oil. Each extraction method has its benefits and disadvantages. Thus, the industry needs to determine which method to be use in order to meet the needs of the population. Coconut oil extracted from different methods can have different quality and usage. If the coconut oil were to be applied externally, the quality of the oil was not prioritised but the amount of oil being extracted was prioritised. Therefore, a method that provides high oil yield may be preferred. There will never be a “perfect” method to satisfy everyone in one method alone, thus multiple methods have been invented and tested.

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuw002

Study: weak evidence

Website

DOI: 10.1002/9781444339925.ch6

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Narratives Review

Abstract. Compared with long-chain fatty acids, medium-chain fatty acids are characterized by fast digestion and absorption, less fat accumulation and deposition, improve insulin resistance, regulate energy metabolism, inhibit microorganisms and other biological functions. They are widely used in food, medicine, genetic engineering and other nutrition-related aspects, and have great potential in the development and utilization of health food. In this paper, the definition, source, physicochemical properties, metabolic characteristics, biological functions, safety and application in nutrition-related fields of medium chain fatty acids will be reviewed and discussed

Though weight management effect is the major health benefit been proposed by researchers, antidiabetic and anti-Alzheimer’s disease benefits are also been demonstrated in some other studies. Similarly, proposed mechanisms associated with these two benefits are rapid fatty acid oxidation, enhanced ketone formation and possible less fat accumulation in body. However, there are insufficient studies and well documented evidences to illustrate mechanism at physiological level.

DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/705/1/012013

Study: weak evidence

Besonders häufig wird das Kokosöl zur Wundbehandlung und zur Aufbewahrung der dazu benötigten Heilpflanzen verwendet.Dies lässt sich durch eine biochemische Fettsäureanalyse erklären,da sich im Kokosöl im Gegensatz zum Olivenöl oder zu tierischem Fettgewebe vorwiegend Triglyzeride mit kurzkettigen und gesättigten Fettsäuren nachweisen lassen.Diese kurzkettigen und gesättigten Fettsäuren im Kokosöl zeichnen sich biochemisch durch eine ausserordentliche Reaktionsträgheit aus,d.h.,sie werden nicht oxidiert,das Öl wird deshalb nicht ranzig und eignet sich daher auch zur Aufbewahrung von Heilpflanzen zur Wundbehandlung.

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Klinischer Fallbericht

DOI: 10.1080/08923970802135567

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Study: weak evidence

Prospektive, randomisierte Kontrollstudie (RCT)

DOI: 10.1177/014860710202600298

Study: strong evidence

Prospektive, klinische Interventionsstudie (nicht randomisiert)

DOI: 10.1016/0026-0495(94)90224-0

Study: moderate evidence

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.5114/pg.2016.61374

Study: weak evidence

Experimentelle Laborstudie

It is widely used in the food industry, but the evaluation of the quality of coconut oil remains difficult” [2]. Coconut oil belongs to a special group of vegetable oils called lauric oils due to the high concentration of the this fatty acid which is a saturated fatty acid [3]. Coconut oil has been reported to have many health benefits such as antimicrobial and antiviral activity due to its lauric acid content as well as easy digestibility as a result of its medium chain fatty acids content [4].

Fig. 1. Unit operations stating the various methods employed in the extraction of coconut oil

Dodecanoic acid C12H24O2

Study: weak evidence

Based on these findings, therefore, it can be concluded that polyunsaturated fat may prevent rise in serum lipid and reduce blood pressure; however, once the oils was repeatedly heated, they have detrimental effect on serum lipid as it increase LDL-cholesterol, reduced HDLcholesterol, caused vascular inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, increase blood pressure and induced vascular structural changes, which predispose to atherosclerosis. Thus, these findings suggest intake of repeatedly heated oil is detrimental to cardiovascular health and may increase risk of CVD, osteoporosis, derangement of kidney and liver architecture (Fig. 10.2).

Therefore, when a vegetable oil is heated repeatedly, the oxidation products gradually accumulate in it, worsening the safety of the oil. Heating oil repeatedly in high temperatures for a long time will generate oxygen-derived lipid peroxidation products and hydroxylation products, which are harmful to the body (Adam et al., 2008a). Lipid peroxidation substance can seep into food during the frying process and has the potential to cause harmful effects if consumed. It is thought that consumption of such oil can cause irreversible cellular changes, mutation, cancer, and atherosclerosis (Owu et al., 1998). Interestingly, postprandial oxidative stress was also reported in human subjects after the intake of deep-frying oil (Perez-Herrera et al., 2013). Higher levels of oxidation compounds present in heated oils may overpower the endogenous antioxidant activities (Ringseis et al., 2007). Heating not only increased lipid peroxidation but also caused reduction in vitamin E content of the oil as reported by Adam et al. (2007). It was reported that up to 99% of vitamin E was destroyed after repeated heating; this may worsen the oxidative stress. Heated oil causes lipid peroxidation and vascular inflammation, which leads to vascular dysfunction

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-811442-1.00010-9

Book

Indonesien
Philippinen
Indien
SriLanka
Brasilien
Thailand
Mexiko
 

Es wird durch Auspressen aus dem zerkleinerten und getrockneten Nährgewebe
der Kokosnuss, dem Kopra, gewonnen. Die frische Kopra wird getrocknet, gepresst
und das Öl anschliessend raffiniert. 

Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung erlangten Kokosnüsse erst mit dem 19. Jahrhundert. Die
ersten, von Holländern auf Ceylon angelegten Plantagen stammen aus der Mitte des
19. Jahrhunderts. Heute werden Kokosnüsse auf beiden Seiten des Äquators in den tropischen
Zonen im Küstenbereich und im Landesinneren an Flussufern angebaut. Die
Weltproduktion an Kokosnüssen lässt sich recht schwer abschätzen, da ein grosser Teil
davon lokal verzehrt wird und nie in Handelsstatistiken erscheint. Ausserdem pflanzt
und beerntet man Kokospalmen nicht nur in Plantagen, sondern auch an Strassenrändern
undinGärten. Es ist deshalb schwierig, Produktionsziffern sowieAnbauflächen
korrekt zu erfassen. Dennoch verschafft die folgende Tabelle einen Überblick über den
Anbau und die Haupterzeugerländer sowie über die Tatsache, dass sich die Kokosnussproduktion
seit 1980 verdoppelt hat, was auf die vielfältige und steigende Nutzung des
Kopras zurückzuführen ist (Roth/Kormann 2000, S. 130 – Hager 1978, Band 4, S. 181 –
Salhunke 1991, S. 281f).

Erstarrungspunkt: 21-25 °C

Fettsäurenzusammensetzung (% versch. Untersuchungen):

Caprylsäure 9 4.8 10
Caprinsäure 10 5.1 6.7
Laurinsäure 45 46.6 52.1
Myristinsäure 20 19 17.5
Palmitinsäure 7 10.3 7.3
Stearinsäure 5 3.4 1.7
Ölsäure 5 8.2 3.9
Linolsäure — 2.1 0.8
Capronsäure — 0.2 —
Arachinsäure — 0.1 —

Kokosöl ist gekühlt 1–2 Jahre haltbar.

Tocopherolgehalt
(Gehaltsangabe inmg/100 g und Zusammensetzung in%)
Nach Kerschbaum, 2001 enthält Kokosöl auf Grund der notwendigen Raffination
kein Vitamin E. Nach Salhunke, 1991 enthält es jedoch 20 mg/kg Öl -Tocopherol
(Kerschbaum2001, S. 26 – Salhunke 1991, S. 297).

Die Frucht ist eine Steinfrucht und ist ungefähr 13 Monate nach der Öffnung der Blütenscheide ausge-

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-1005-8

Book

Narratives Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

In recent years, coconut oil has emerged as a potential ‘miracle’ food. Some media vehicles and health specialists assure that this fat is capable of promoting health benefits, such as weight reduction, cholesterol lowering, prevention of cardiovascular diseases, and anti-inflammatory effect, among others. These claims are used to market the product and boost its sales by coconut oil companies. However, governmental regulatory agencies in many countries are still sceptical about the benefits obtained by the consumption of coconut oil due to its high-saturated fatty acid content. In light of such controversy, this review focused on analysing the published literature on the alleged health claims, in order to investigate if there is enough scientific evidence to support them. It was verified that the metabolism of lauric acid, the major fatty acid in coconut oil, remains unclear. Many studies reported that the product was not efficient in weight loss. Also, it has been reported that the consumption of coconut oil increased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, consequently increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. In general, the studies present conflicting results and there is a lack of long-term human-based clinical trials. Therefore, as a saturated fat, coconut oil should be consumed with moderation and the health allegations should not be used to market the product, once they are not scientifically proven so far.

There are basically two types of CO—refined, bleached, and deodorized copra oil (RBDCO) and virgin (VCO). Both RBDCO and VCO have similar fatty acids and triglycerides profile. On the other hand, virgin CO presents a higher content of bioactive compounds such as vitamin E, sterols, and polyphenols as refining removes a portion of these compounds (Marina et al., 2009).

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Fats and oils are concentrated forms of energy and the energy is
obtained from the complete oxidation of FAs in food. Generally,
FAs are classified according to chain length and the degree of saturation.
Concerning the degree of saturation, FAs can be classified
as SFAs, monounsaturated FAs (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated FAs
(PUFAs). Further, based upon chain length they can be subgrouped
into short- (C2–C6), medium- (C8–C12) and long-chain
(C14–C24) FAs.27 SFAs are generally considered to be hypercholesterolemic,
whereas MUFAs are thought to be mildly hypercholesterolemic
and PUFAs are hypocholesterolemic.

A portion size of 100 g
of CNO is found to contain 890 kcal and 82.5 g of saturated fat.28
Thus, CNO is always classified along with butter, palm oil and animal
fats due to its high content of SFAs. Multiple reports confirmed
that the major FAs of CNO are lauric (12:0), myristic (14:0)
and palmitic (16:0) acids, which represent about 32–51%,
17–21% and 6.9–14%, respectively (Table 2). A comprehensive
study by Zambiazi et al.29 also revealed that lauric acid was the
major FA present in CNO comprising 45% of total FAs.
Interest in MCFAs in plant oils has grown rapidly over the last
few years due to the increasing awareness of their health benefits.
9 In contrast to long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs), MCFAs have
smaller molecular sizes and lower melting points. Further, MCFAs
are liquid at room temperature and less energy dense (8.4 versus
9.2 kcal g−1). These distinct physiochemical characteristics make
MCFAs unique in terms of absorption and metabolism compared
to LCFAs.18 As such, they are directly absorbed by the intestine
and sent to the liver to be used as energy.6 Among various plant
oils, coconut, palm kernel and babassu oils are the only commercially
important sources of MCFAs.6 According to multiple reports,
the health benefits exerted by CNO are attributed to its high content
of MCFAs which correspond to 64% of the total FAs.1,30

It is found that CNO has a beneficial impact on external parts of
the body such as hair and skin. People in the tropics have used
CNO as a natural moisturizer for centuries. In Ayurvedic medicine,
CNO has been used to treat numerous skin disorders which
include wound healing and microbial infections.19 Nevin and
Rajamohan19 have shown the beneficial effect of VCO for the
healing of dermal wounds in rats. Further, CNO is applied as a
remedy to heal the pain of burn wounds.2 A comparative study
done to determine the efficacy of VCO and mineral oil as therapeutic
moisturizers for mild to moderate xerosis showed that both
oils had considerable hydration ability on the skin and increased ..

sensational food has remarkable functional properties such as hypocholesterolemic, anti-obesity, anti-hepatosteatotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial including HIV preventive activity and cardio protective effect (Table1) . Moreover,CNO exerts anti-diabetic property by balancing blood sugar levels. ...that medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) present in CNO improve insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity.Further, CNO is gaining attention as a potential cancer controlling and chemotherapy protective agent. 6 Apart from major health claims the abundance of vitamin E in CNO aids in soothing hair and skin. Despite the substantial amount of studies conducted to reinforce the beneficial health properties of CNO, the hypocholesterolemic and cardioprotective effects of oil remain under controversy.

Study: weak evidence

Experimentelle Laborstudie in wissenschaftlichem Journal

Different varieties of VCOs are known based on how they are prepared, which includes cold pressing, hot extraction (HVCO), and fermentation method (FVCO). Recent studies have indicated higher polyphenol content in HVCO than in the cold-pressed (Seneviratne et al., 2009; Srivastava et al., 2016).

Study: weak evidence

Experimentelle Laborstudie (in vitro)

Organic coconut oils are observed to have lower palmitic
acid than conventional ones but higher total SFA
as a result of the relatively higher level of lauric acid (Table
1). The predominance of lauric acid is a known characteristic
of coconut oil, as is the presence of a high level of
other short chain fatty acids, such as caprylic (C8:0) and
capric (C10:0) acids (Gunstone, 1996). Fatty acids with
chain lengths shorter than lauric acid were not analysed
in this study so potential differences in shorter chain fatty
acids between organic and conventional coconut oils have
not been investigated.

DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.12.067

Study: weak evidence

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

The most promising bioactive compound in
VCOs was MCFA, of which lauric acid
was the main contributor. The low levels
of phytosterols in both VCOs were not
deemed to have potential health benefits.

Both VCO production processes removed all hydrophilic compounds, with the remaining fat and moisture contents not significantly different at 99.90% and 0.10%, respectively. Their fatty acid profiles were 90% saturated and 60% medium chain (mainly lauric acid). The phenolic compound (originally found high in coconut milk) was present in trace amounts in the VCOs. However, phytosterols became more concentrated. Chances of medium chain fatty acid becoming more available for health benefit were at 54% and 58%, and were insignificant among both VCOs. Fermentation caused more rancidity to the product. Conclusion: Both centrifugation and fermentation production processes did not qualitatively and quantitatively affect the bioactive compounds of virgin coconut oil. 

Study: weak evidence

Modellierungsstudie / Sekundärdaten-Analyse

Nutritional Quality Score of Edible Oils and Fats

VOO showed the highest value for the nutritional quality score, with 8 points, which corresponded to a score of 100 (Table 2). All plant oils, except for margarine and coconut oil, scored above the 50th percentile. In fact, these two fats showed the lowest score, with 14 and 0 score points, respectively (−11 and −14 points). Fats derived from fish, i.e., salmon, sardine, and herring, received points above the 68th percentile. In contrast, the rest of fats derived from animals, i.e., beef tallow, lard, and butter, scored below the 50th percentile.

After calculating percentiles, coconut oil received the lowest score of 0 points due to its high SFA content, resulting in low concentrations of UFA. In addition, the presence of phytosterols and tocopherols was very low, which contributed greatly to the low punctuation. Despite claims made by consumers on social media regarding the health benefits of coconut oil [27], recent meta-analyses showed that consumption of this oil increases serum lipid concentrations more than oils rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and PUFA [28,29,30], which is comparable to that of animal fats rich in SFA [31].

DOI: 10.3390/nu15092127

Study: weak evidence

Experimentelle Laborstudie

Table 1: Lauric (12:0) 1.49

Table 2:Lauric (12:0)   3.14

DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/388/1/012065

Study: weak evidence

Foods considered healthier by the public than by experts:

Coconut oil: Experts 37%, Public 72%

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Klinischer Fallbericht

A common concern of food allergic patients (especially those allergic to nuts) is whether they can
safely consume coconut products. Despite coconut allergy being rare, there is a misconception that
if a patient is allergic to nuts, they are at high risk of experiencing allergic reactions to coconut; as a
consequence, nut-allergic patients are not uncommonly advised to avoid coconut.
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a fruit (not a nut) that belongs to the Aracaceae (palms) plant family.
The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word ‘coco’ meaning ‘head’ or
‘skull’. The oil and milk derived from coconut are commonly used in cooking and frying, as well as in
soaps, cosmetics and other skin care products.

DOI: 10.3390/children4100085

Study: weak evidence

Experimentelle Laborstudie

According to Jang et al., oils and fats are modified chemically by hydrogenation to improve their plasticity and oxidation stability properties [8]. Partially hydrogenated edible fats may contain trans fatty acid isomers that are found to be nutritionally solicitous [1]. To avoid the presence of trans isomers, one of the possible solutions is to use fully hydrogenated oils because they are trans-free com-pounds [15]. Since full hydrogenation result in extremely hard texture, blending with more soft material is needed. Coconut oil, because of its long shelf life and melting point of 24.4 °C, is frequently used in the baking industry in western countries, being commonly treated by full-hydrogenation

DOI: 10.3311/PPch.9638

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Various methods have been employed to extract the coconut oil, but whichever method have been used it is still the best to avoid oil that has been refined, bleached or deodourized.

The most popular traditional method of oil extraction are cold extraction and hot extraction process. The challenges faced by these two processes include low yield of oil and the heating process in the hot extraction technique will cause a reduction in the antioxidant properties in oil. Since the last decade, several extraction techniques have been introduced with the aim to improve the technology for coconut oil extraction. Table ​Table11 shows the summary of various techniques available for coconut oil extraction.

Among those vegetable oil used by consumers, coconut oil is slow to oxidize thus resistant to rancidity, resulting in a longer shelf life.

Expeller pressing: The expeller pressing is a mechanical method that extracts oil from nuts and seeds by using high pressure and high heat

DOI: 10.1007/s00449-021-02577-9

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) and its value-added products are rich in medium chain triglycerides, polyphenols and flavonoids with a significant anti-oxidant potential. However, coconut and its products are underutilized for the development of nutraceuticals. Coconut testa is a brown cover of the endosperm, which is characterized with the considerable amount of phytonutrients, especially phenolics and flavonoids. The nutrient rich coconut testa is generally diverted for the production of animal feed or abandoned. Around 10–15% of the coconut kernel is removed as testa while preparing coconut desiccated powder. The coconut testa from the virgin coconut oil (VCO) industry also remains underutilized. Nevertheless, biochemical characterization of coconut testa has revealed its enormous anti-oxidant and nutraceutical potential. On the other hand there are reports describing the suitable encapsulation techniques to develop nutraceuticals from the plant-derived bioactives. In this context this review explores the prospect of utilizing the coconut testa-derived phytonutrients in developing a nutraceutical product.

DOI: 10.1007/s13197-021-05310-2

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

DOI: 10.22271/phyto.2021.v10.i6a.14254

Study: weak evidence