Kokosöl - Ökologischer Fussabdruck

Laborstudie / analytisch-chemische Vergleichsstudie

Coconut oil is a vegetable oil that is derived from the kernel of Cocos nucifera, Linn. Commercial refined coconut oil (RCO) is extracted from dried copra, and the resulting crude oil is processed on an industrial scale by washing, bleaching, and deodorization [1]. Virgin coconut oil (VCO), on the other *Paper based on a presentation made at the 11th Eurasia Conference on Chemical Sciences, The Dead Sea, Jordan, 6–10 October 2010. Other presentations are published in this issue, pp. 1643–1799. ‡Corresponding author hand, is extracted from fresh mature coconut meat and processed using only physical or natural means [2,3]. There are four common methods of producing VCO: expeller (EXP), centrifuge (CEN), and fermentation with (FWH) and without heat (FNH). VCO is considered as a traditional product that is produced by small to medium enterprises.

However, VCO is most susceptible to microbial attack, which leads to the formation of various organic acids, in particular, lactic acid. However, at moisture levels below 0.06 %, microbial action is significantly lessened

DOI: 10.1351/PAC-CON-11-04-01

Study: weak evidence

Website

Narratives Review

Coconut is one of the most important tree crops in the tropical region of the world securing food and shelter for millions of people. Coconut tree is grown in more than 93 countries around the world in an area of 11.95 million hector producing 57,510 million coconuts annually [1]. Virgin coconut oil (VCO) was introduced to the world at the end of twentieth century. It is being considered as the greatest value derived from the fresh coconut [2].  Various methods have been employed to extract the coconut oil, but whichever method have been used it is still the best to avoid oil that has been refined, bleached or deodourized. This is because when the coconut oil undergo these processes, the health benefit, taste and the aroma will be reduced [3, 5]. As VCO contains large amount of high value compounds, its importance has been given more and more attention by the industry throughout the years. This results in the development of various extraction processes, each with its respective advantages and limitations. Therefore, it is crucial for the industry to choose the most suitable extraction process to avoid breaking down of the high value compounds.

When fed with hot extracted virgin coconut oil, the total change in cholesterol level of the male Wistar albino rats had decreased more when compared with cold extracted virgin coconut oil [18]. 

Virgin coconut oil has many uses in our daily life as well as industrial applications. This will give a positive result to the market demand and the industry may apply the methods mentioned above to extract coconut oil. Each extraction method has its benefits and disadvantages. Thus, the industry needs to determine which method to be use in order to meet the needs of the population. Coconut oil extracted from different methods can have different quality and usage. If the coconut oil were to be applied externally, the quality of the oil was not prioritised but the amount of oil being extracted was prioritised. Therefore, a method that provides high oil yield may be preferred. There will never be a “perfect” method to satisfy everyone in one method alone, thus multiple methods have been invented and tested.

Study: weak evidence

Book

DOI: 10.1002/9781444339925.ch6

Book

In-vitro-Laborstudie (mit Human-Anwendungstest in vivo, aber nicht klinisch)

Study: weak evidence

experimentelle Laborstudie (inkl. Feldstudie und eine nicht klinische Human-Expositionsstudie)

Study: weak evidence

Modellierungsstudie (LCA)

Abstract Purpose In light of the sustainable diet debate, we conducted a large-scale regionalised LCA to answer the following questions: (i) does the climate advantage hypothesis of plant-based fat spreads and creams over dairy butter and cream hold regardless of the variabilities of product recipes, geographies and the influence of land use change (LUC)? (ii) Considering the climate-water-land nexus, is there a risk of shifting impacts from climate to water scarcity and land occupation, and what are the key opportunities for impact mitigation? Methods A framework for conducting a large-scale regionalised LCA was developed and applied to compare the environmental impacts of 212 plant-based fat spreads, 16 plant-based creams and 40 dairy alternatives sold in 21 countries per 1 kg of product. Data was compiled for different product recipes, key ingredient sourcing countries, production factory locations, energy mixes, packaging designs, transportation and end-of-life scenarios. Spatially (archetype) differentiated agricultural life cycle inventory data were generated, as well as LUC emissions for agricultural ingredients. A total of 18 environmental indicators were assessed. Results and discussion All plant-based spreads had a significantly lower climate impact than butter, with and without LUC inclusion. The regionalised analysis highlighted large variabilities across products, ranging from 0.98 to 6.93 (mean 3.3) kg CO2- eq for 212 plant-based spreads and 8.08 to 16.93 (mean 12.1) kg CO2-eq for 21 dairy butter with 95th confidence interval. The main drivers of GHG emissions for plant-based products are oilseed farming and the associated LUC emissions, which can vary significantly depending on type of oilseeds, quantity and sourcing country; in the worst-case scenario, the climate advantage is no longer valid due to LUC. Thus, the inclusion of LUC is essential for a robust assessment and hotspot identification. Overall, the risk of shifting impact was small, as most of the plant-based spreads also had lower impacts for water scarcity footprints and land occupation; 8 of the 212 products were not lower, due to oilseed ingredients with high embodied impacts. Conclusions This study confirmed that plant-based spreads had lower climate, water and land impacts than butter, despite variability of product recipes, geographies and influence of LUC. This research offers a framework for performing regionalised agricultural LCA for a large portfolio of products thereby enabling identification of inter-product variabilities and hotspots for the development of mitigation strategies. Key mitigation opportunities include reducing oilseed ingredients’ embodied impacts by optimising product recipe design and adapting supply chain sourcing and agricultural practice.

DOI: 10.1007/s11367-019-01703-w

Website

Global average water
footprint (m3 ton−1)
Green Blue Grey Total

Coconuts 2669 2 16 2687
Copra 2079 1 12 2093
Coconut (husked) 1247 1 7 1256
Coconut (copra) oil , refined 4461 3 27 4490
Coconut/copra oilcake 829 1 5 834
Coconut (coir) fibre, processed 2433 2 15 2449

12 Kokosöl  2,3  CO2-Fussabdruck [kg CO2-Äq. / kg Lebensmittel] 

Website

Experimentelle Laborstudie

It is widely used in the food industry, but the evaluation of the quality of coconut oil remains difficult” [2]. Coconut oil belongs to a special group of vegetable oils called lauric oils due to the high concentration of the this fatty acid which is a saturated fatty acid [3]. Coconut oil has been reported to have many health benefits such as antimicrobial and antiviral activity due to its lauric acid content as well as easy digestibility as a result of its medium chain fatty acids content [4].

Fig. 1. Unit operations stating the various methods employed in the extraction of coconut oil

Dodecanoic acid C12H24O2

Study: weak evidence

Indonesien
Philippinen
Indien
SriLanka
Brasilien
Thailand
Mexiko
 

Es wird durch Auspressen aus dem zerkleinerten und getrockneten Nährgewebe
der Kokosnuss, dem Kopra, gewonnen. Die frische Kopra wird getrocknet, gepresst
und das Öl anschliessend raffiniert. 

Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung erlangten Kokosnüsse erst mit dem 19. Jahrhundert. Die
ersten, von Holländern auf Ceylon angelegten Plantagen stammen aus der Mitte des
19. Jahrhunderts. Heute werden Kokosnüsse auf beiden Seiten des Äquators in den tropischen
Zonen im Küstenbereich und im Landesinneren an Flussufern angebaut. Die
Weltproduktion an Kokosnüssen lässt sich recht schwer abschätzen, da ein grosser Teil
davon lokal verzehrt wird und nie in Handelsstatistiken erscheint. Ausserdem pflanzt
und beerntet man Kokospalmen nicht nur in Plantagen, sondern auch an Strassenrändern
undinGärten. Es ist deshalb schwierig, Produktionsziffern sowieAnbauflächen
korrekt zu erfassen. Dennoch verschafft die folgende Tabelle einen Überblick über den
Anbau und die Haupterzeugerländer sowie über die Tatsache, dass sich die Kokosnussproduktion
seit 1980 verdoppelt hat, was auf die vielfältige und steigende Nutzung des
Kopras zurückzuführen ist (Roth/Kormann 2000, S. 130 – Hager 1978, Band 4, S. 181 –
Salhunke 1991, S. 281f).

Erstarrungspunkt: 21-25 °C

Fettsäurenzusammensetzung (% versch. Untersuchungen):

Caprylsäure 9 4.8 10
Caprinsäure 10 5.1 6.7
Laurinsäure 45 46.6 52.1
Myristinsäure 20 19 17.5
Palmitinsäure 7 10.3 7.3
Stearinsäure 5 3.4 1.7
Ölsäure 5 8.2 3.9
Linolsäure — 2.1 0.8
Capronsäure — 0.2 —
Arachinsäure — 0.1 —

Kokosöl ist gekühlt 1–2 Jahre haltbar.

Tocopherolgehalt
(Gehaltsangabe inmg/100 g und Zusammensetzung in%)
Nach Kerschbaum, 2001 enthält Kokosöl auf Grund der notwendigen Raffination
kein Vitamin E. Nach Salhunke, 1991 enthält es jedoch 20 mg/kg Öl -Tocopherol
(Kerschbaum2001, S. 26 – Salhunke 1991, S. 297).

Die Frucht ist eine Steinfrucht und ist ungefähr 13 Monate nach der Öffnung der Blütenscheide ausge-

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-1005-8

Book

Narratives Review

The primary fatty acid of coconut oil is lauric acid, which is present at approximately 45–53 %. The metabolic and physiological properties of lauric acid account for many of the properties of coconut oil.

DOI: 10.1007/s11746-014-2562-7

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Fats and oils are concentrated forms of energy and the energy is
obtained from the complete oxidation of FAs in food. Generally,
FAs are classified according to chain length and the degree of saturation.
Concerning the degree of saturation, FAs can be classified
as SFAs, monounsaturated FAs (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated FAs
(PUFAs). Further, based upon chain length they can be subgrouped
into short- (C2–C6), medium- (C8–C12) and long-chain
(C14–C24) FAs.27 SFAs are generally considered to be hypercholesterolemic,
whereas MUFAs are thought to be mildly hypercholesterolemic
and PUFAs are hypocholesterolemic.

A portion size of 100 g
of CNO is found to contain 890 kcal and 82.5 g of saturated fat.28
Thus, CNO is always classified along with butter, palm oil and animal
fats due to its high content of SFAs. Multiple reports confirmed
that the major FAs of CNO are lauric (12:0), myristic (14:0)
and palmitic (16:0) acids, which represent about 32–51%,
17–21% and 6.9–14%, respectively (Table 2). A comprehensive
study by Zambiazi et al.29 also revealed that lauric acid was the
major FA present in CNO comprising 45% of total FAs.
Interest in MCFAs in plant oils has grown rapidly over the last
few years due to the increasing awareness of their health benefits.
9 In contrast to long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs), MCFAs have
smaller molecular sizes and lower melting points. Further, MCFAs
are liquid at room temperature and less energy dense (8.4 versus
9.2 kcal g−1). These distinct physiochemical characteristics make
MCFAs unique in terms of absorption and metabolism compared
to LCFAs.18 As such, they are directly absorbed by the intestine
and sent to the liver to be used as energy.6 Among various plant
oils, coconut, palm kernel and babassu oils are the only commercially
important sources of MCFAs.6 According to multiple reports,
the health benefits exerted by CNO are attributed to its high content
of MCFAs which correspond to 64% of the total FAs.1,30

It is found that CNO has a beneficial impact on external parts of
the body such as hair and skin. People in the tropics have used
CNO as a natural moisturizer for centuries. In Ayurvedic medicine,
CNO has been used to treat numerous skin disorders which
include wound healing and microbial infections.19 Nevin and
Rajamohan19 have shown the beneficial effect of VCO for the
healing of dermal wounds in rats. Further, CNO is applied as a
remedy to heal the pain of burn wounds.2 A comparative study
done to determine the efficacy of VCO and mineral oil as therapeutic
moisturizers for mild to moderate xerosis showed that both
oils had considerable hydration ability on the skin and increased ..

sensational food has remarkable functional properties such as hypocholesterolemic, anti-obesity, anti-hepatosteatotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial including HIV preventive activity and cardio protective effect (Table1) . Moreover,CNO exerts anti-diabetic property by balancing blood sugar levels. ...that medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs) present in CNO improve insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity.Further, CNO is gaining attention as a potential cancer controlling and chemotherapy protective agent. 6 Apart from major health claims the abundance of vitamin E in CNO aids in soothing hair and skin. Despite the substantial amount of studies conducted to reinforce the beneficial health properties of CNO, the hypocholesterolemic and cardioprotective effects of oil remain under controversy.

Study: weak evidence

Experimentelle Laborstudie in wissenschaftlichem Journal

Different varieties of VCOs are known based on how they are prepared, which includes cold pressing, hot extraction (HVCO), and fermentation method (FVCO). Recent studies have indicated higher polyphenol content in HVCO than in the cold-pressed (Seneviratne et al., 2009; Srivastava et al., 2016).

Study: weak evidence

Narrativer Review in wissenschaftlichem Journal

The most promising bioactive compound in
VCOs was MCFA, of which lauric acid
was the main contributor. The low levels
of phytosterols in both VCOs were not
deemed to have potential health benefits.

Both VCO production processes removed all hydrophilic compounds, with the remaining fat and moisture contents not significantly different at 99.90% and 0.10%, respectively. Their fatty acid profiles were 90% saturated and 60% medium chain (mainly lauric acid). The phenolic compound (originally found high in coconut milk) was present in trace amounts in the VCOs. However, phytosterols became more concentrated. Chances of medium chain fatty acid becoming more available for health benefit were at 54% and 58%, and were insignificant among both VCOs. Fermentation caused more rancidity to the product. Conclusion: Both centrifugation and fermentation production processes did not qualitatively and quantitatively affect the bioactive compounds of virgin coconut oil. 

Study: weak evidence

Klinischer Fallbericht

A common concern of food allergic patients (especially those allergic to nuts) is whether they can
safely consume coconut products. Despite coconut allergy being rare, there is a misconception that
if a patient is allergic to nuts, they are at high risk of experiencing allergic reactions to coconut; as a
consequence, nut-allergic patients are not uncommonly advised to avoid coconut.
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a fruit (not a nut) that belongs to the Aracaceae (palms) plant family.
The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word ‘coco’ meaning ‘head’ or
‘skull’. The oil and milk derived from coconut are commonly used in cooking and frying, as well as in
soaps, cosmetics and other skin care products.

DOI: 10.3390/children4100085

Study: weak evidence

Ein weiteres Problem betrifft die Menschen vor Ort: Die Kokosproduktion übernehmen in den Hauptanbaugebieten, wie etwa den Philippinen, viele Kleinbauern. Dort leben über 60 Prozent der Bäuerinnen und Bauern unter der Armutsgrenze, und das während die Preise am Weltmarkt steigen. Die höheren Einnahmen versickern oft bei Zwischenhändlern, die das gewonnene Kopra – so etwas wie das Fruchtfleisch der Kokosnuss – an Ölmühlen weiterverkaufen. Das ist nicht nur schlecht für die Lebensbedingungen der Bäuerinnen und Bauern vor Ort, sondern auch für die Umweltbilanz der Kokosproduktion.

Wer sich möglichst umweltschonend ernähren möchte, dem hilft aktuell nur ein genauer Blick auf Siegel und Zertifizierungen. In Bezug auf Palmöl sind das zum Beispiel die Siegel des Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), bei Kokosöl hilft das Zertifikat der Rainforest Alliance (RA). Ein europäisches Lieferkettengesetz könnte helfen, mehr Klarheit unabhängig von einzelnen Siegeln zu schaffen: Unternehmen würden grundsätzlich dazu verpflichtet, ökologische und soziale Standards entlang der gesamten Lieferkette sicherzustellen.

Damit wäre auch den Bauern vor Ort und damit wiederum der Umwelt geholfen. Denn: Aus Sozialstandards resultieren auch höhere Einkommen. Diese wiederum helfen beim Wissensaufbau, beispielsweise hinsichtlich Infrastruktur und Technologie. Theoretisch könnte nämlich schon jetzt mit weniger als der bereits bestehenden Plantagenfläche der gesamte Pflanzenölbedarf der nächsten Jahrzehnte gedeckt werden.

Einfache Boykottaufrufe helfen eher nicht, denn viele Menschen vor Ort sind auf den Anbau von Pflanzenölen angewiesen. "Palmöl komplett zu boykottieren, das bedeutet auch, dass die Menschen vor Ort ihre Kinder nicht mehr zur Schule schicken können und Krankenhäuser nicht gebaut werden", sagt Wissenschaftler Erik Meijaard. Der Forscher Robert Beyer erinnert daran, dass es auch auf unseren Sonnenblumen- und Rapsfelden früher eine grössere Artenvielfalt gegeben habe. "Auf diesen Flächen haben einmal Wölfe und Bären gelebt. Das vergessen wir zu leicht."

Website

Experimentelle Laborstudie

According to Jang et al., oils and fats are modified chemically by hydrogenation to improve their plasticity and oxidation stability properties [8]. Partially hydrogenated edible fats may contain trans fatty acid isomers that are found to be nutritionally solicitous [1]. To avoid the presence of trans isomers, one of the possible solutions is to use fully hydrogenated oils because they are trans-free com-pounds [15]. Since full hydrogenation result in extremely hard texture, blending with more soft material is needed. Coconut oil, because of its long shelf life and melting point of 24.4 °C, is frequently used in the baking industry in western countries, being commonly treated by full-hydrogenation

DOI: 10.3311/PPch.9638

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Various methods have been employed to extract the coconut oil, but whichever method have been used it is still the best to avoid oil that has been refined, bleached or deodourized.

The most popular traditional method of oil extraction are cold extraction and hot extraction process. The challenges faced by these two processes include low yield of oil and the heating process in the hot extraction technique will cause a reduction in the antioxidant properties in oil. Since the last decade, several extraction techniques have been introduced with the aim to improve the technology for coconut oil extraction. Table ​Table11 shows the summary of various techniques available for coconut oil extraction.

Among those vegetable oil used by consumers, coconut oil is slow to oxidize thus resistant to rancidity, resulting in a longer shelf life.

Expeller pressing: The expeller pressing is a mechanical method that extracts oil from nuts and seeds by using high pressure and high heat

DOI: 10.1007/s00449-021-02577-9

Study: weak evidence