Vollkorn-Spaghetti, vegan (bio)

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum (Desf.) Husnot) is one of the most essential cereal species and is cultivated worldwide over almost 17 million ha, with a global production of 38.1 million tonnes in 2019 [1]. The largest producer is the European Union, with 9 million tonnes in 2018, followed by Canada, Turkey, United States, Algeria, Mexico, Kazakhstan, Syria, and India [2–6]. Durumweizen production and cultivation areas are concentrated in the Mediterranean. Moreover, the countries of the Mediterranean basin are the largest importers and the largest consumers of durumweizen products (flour, pasta, and semolina).

Among European Union (EU) countries, Italy is considered the leader of durumweizen production, with an average production of 4.26 million tonnes in the last decade (1.28 million ha growing area), followed by France with 1.89 million tonnes (0.37 million ha), Greece with 1.07 million tonnes (0.37 million ha), and Spain with 0.98 million tonnes (0.38 million ha) (Table 1) [2]. Since durumweizen is mainly grown under rain-fed conditions in the Mediterranean basin, its productivity is profoundly affected by rainfall and biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (drought, sunlight, cold, and salinity) stresses.

However, modern cultivars have increased gluten index, showing an improvement in pasta-making quality

DOI: 10.3390/agronomy10030432

Website

Narratives Review

Oral aufgenommenes Mangan ist über weite Bereiche ungiftig. Durch den Verzehr einer typisch westlichen Kost wurden bisher keine nachteiligen Effekte beobachtet, die auf

 Der US Food and Nutri tion Board vertritt die Ansicht, dass eine tägliche Manganaufnahme aus Lebensmitteln in Höhe von 11 mg als «vernünftig» (NOAELWert) einzustufen ist (15).

DOI: -

Study: weak evidence

Editorial - Narrative review

The consumption of high-fiber pasta contributes to reducing blood pressure, cholesterol levels, risk of colon cancer and coronary heart disease and improving the feeling of satiety. Moreover, the enrichment with dietary fiber also reduces the glycemic index of pasta, a health aspect often considered in this Special Issue[6–8,10,11].

Besides the presence of dietary fiber, the importance of wholegrain consumption is also related to the presence of health-promoting antioxidant compounds, mostly present in the outer kernel layers. 

Polyphenols are the most abundant plant antioxidants and the long-term consumption of foods rich in polyphenols is considered healthier by reducing the risk of some types of cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. 

DOI: 10.3390/foods11162448

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Whole-grain cereals have a complex dietary fiber (DF) composition consisting of oligosaccharides (mostly fructans), resistant starch, and
nonstarch polysaccharides (NSPs); the most important are arabinoxylans, mixed-linkage β(1,3; 1,4)-D-glucan (β-glucan), and cellulose and the
noncarbohydrate polyphenolic ether lignin. The highest concentration of NSPs and lignin is found in the outer cell layers of the grain, and
refined flour will consequently be depleted of a large proportion of insoluble DF components. The flow and composition of carbohydrates to the
large intestine are directly related to the intake of DF. The type and composition of cereal DF can consequently be used to modulate the
microbial composition and activity as well as the production and molar ratios of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).

Whole-grain cereals have a diverse DF composition that can be used to produce diets with the potential to influence microbial composition, the production and molar proportions of SCFAs, and gut and metabolic health.

DOI: 10.3945/an.114.007450

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Wheat bran is generally considered a byproduct of the flour milling industry, but it is a great source of fibers, minerals, and antioxidants that are important for human health. Phenolic acids are a specific class of wheat bran components that may act as antioxidants to prevent heart disease and to lower the incidence of colon cancer. Moreover, phenolic acids have anti-inflammatory properties that are potentially significant for the promotion of gastrointestinal health. Evidence on the beneficial effects of phenolic acids as well as of other wheat bran components is encouraging the use of wheat bran as an ingredient of functional foods.

wheat bran contains p-hydroxybenzoic, vannilic, syringic, and gallic acids. However, the most abundant phenolic acids in wheat are derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acids, specifically ferulic acid, dehydrodimers and dehydrotrimers of ferulic acid, and sinapic and p-coumaric acids.

DOI: 10.3390/molecules200915666

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Most SCFAs are utilized by colonocytes as an energy source

Fiber and omega-3 rich diets increase SCFAs production and abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria. Likewise, SCFAs can improve gut barrier integrity, glucose, and lipid metabolism, regulate the immune system, the inflammatory response, and blood pressure.

DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2021.1897212

Study: weak evidence

Kapitel in Buch

Durum wheat pasta made from regular refined semolina is commonly available as a good source of complex carbohydrates. In addition to its low fat levels, durum wheat pasta owes its low glycemic index and glycemic load to its high resistant starch content.44–48 

The gradual rate of release of sugars from pasta starch, which has been reported to be slower than other cereal products,53 is due to the compact structure of pasta allowing for a very close protein network encapsulating starch granules that delays α-amylase attack54–57 and the interaction with such components as dietary fiber.58

The health benefits of whole grain and its use in pasta as outlined above are very likely a result of synergistic effects of the many bioactive compounds in whole wheat grain.74,87 Several bioactive phytochemical compounds have been studied in wheat. Those reported in pasta products include dietary fiber, oligosaccharides, phenolics (phenolic acids, alkylresorcinols, and flavonoids), lignans, and phytic acid.43,74,88 Most of these compounds beneficial to health are highly concentrated in the bran and germ portions of whole grain.43,89

Dietary fiber is known to positively influence glucose and lipid metabolism.44,45,90 The dietary fiber constituents along with other bran components that include alkylresorcinols, tocols, and sterols are key factors to be considered by plant breeders planning to develop varieties with health-promoting effects.90 Studies on the role of fiber in human health have shown convincing inverse association between dietary fiber intake, through vegetable consumption and substitution of refined grains with whole grains, and total and specific mortality even in more recent findings on non-CVD, non-cancer inflammatory and respiratory diseases as well.91

"and bioactive compounds, including some minerals, vitamins, carotenoids, polyphenols, and alkylresorcinols, which have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties"

DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-401716-0.00001-5

Book

Narratives Review

Dehulling has been traditionally used in households to remove the tough outer layers of cereal grains in order to improve their palatability and for the removal of anti-nutritional factors. Mechanical fraction or milling of cereal grains is the process by which flours are produced at a larger scale. It may be considered the industrial equivalent of dehulling because the production of refined or “white” flours consists of removing the bran and germ to isolate the starchy endosperm of the grain. The removal of such grain components produces flours that are more stable upon storage, have improved processability, and result in food products of preferred sensory quality (i.e., white bread versus whole grain bread). However, refined flours have a total dietary fiber content that is about four times less than that of whole grain flours (Slavin et al. 2000) and, thus, refined cereal flours lack other nutritionally relevant compounds that are found in the bran and germ components (Hemery et al. 2007). Due to the impact that bran and germ components have on stability and sensory quality of whole grain food products (i. e., rancidity, rough textures and darker colors), substantial research efforts have focused on understanding how to process whole grains to enhance their consumption (Slavin and Lloyd 2012).

DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1392287

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

In the present review, we describe how the daily consumption of wheat products and other related cereal grains could contribute to the manifestation of chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases. Both in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrate that gliadin and WGA can both increase intestinal permeability and activate the immune system. The effects of gliadin on intestinal permeability and the immune system have also been confirmed in humans. Other cereal grains containing related prolamins and lectins have not been so extensively studied and, therefore, more research investigating their impact on intestinal permeability and inflammation is required. It would be interesting to further elucidate the role of other prolamins on zonulin release and intestinal permeability.
In CD and gluten-sensitive individuals, adverse reactions to the intake of wheat, rye and barley are clinically apparent;

how the consumption of wheat, but also other cereal grains, can contribute to the manifestation of chronic inflammation and autoimmune diseases by increasing intestinal permeability and initiating a pro-inflammatory immune response

DOI: 10.3390/nu5030771

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Humans lack the enzymes to degrade the bulk of dietary
fibers. Therefore these nondigestible carbohydrates pass
the upper gastrointestinal tract unaffected and are fermented
in the cecum and the large intestine by the anaerobic
cecal and colonic microbiota. Fermentation results
in multiple groups of metabolites [elegantly reviewed by
Nicholson et al. ( 5 )] of which short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs)
are the major group ( 6 ).

To the microbial community SCFAs are a necessary waste product, required to balance redox equivalent production in the anaerobic environment of the gut ( 7 ).

DOI: 10.1194/jlr.R036012

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Epidemiological studies have found that whole wheat consumption is inversely associated with the risk of chronic diseases, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. The health benefits of whole wheat foods are attributed to their bioactive components, including phytochemicals and dietary fiber. In this review, the current studies regarding bioactive components and their health-promoting roles and the underlying mechanisms were summarized and discussed.

DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c00705

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Gluten-free products currently constitute a profitable segment in the food industry with an estimated value of several billion dollars (Talley and Walker 2017; Wu et al. 2015). The unfounded perception in the general population that a GFD is a healthy choice is fostering medically unjustified alimentary habits of gluten avoidance.

Currently, only patients diagnosed with CD should follow a strict lifelong GFD and patients with IgE-mediated wheat allergy must avoid exposure to wheat in any form. In this context, and despite several scientific advances, nonceliac gluten sensitivity has been demonstrated to be a not fully understood condition for which the scientific community has not reached a consensus for its classification as an independent clinical entity

DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1651689

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

A gluten-free diet (GFD) is the only available treatment for celiac disease (CeD), and it may also improve symptoms in non-celiac gluten/wheat sensitivity (NCGWS). In CeD, gluten triggers an immune reaction leading to enteropathy, malabsorption, and symptoms; in NCGWS, the mechanism leading to symptoms is unknown, and neither wheat nor gluten triggers enteropathy or malabsorption. A strict GFD is, therefore, necessary for CeD, but a gluten-restricted diet (GRD) may suffice to achieve symptom control for NCGWS. Regardless of this distinction, the risk of malnutrition and macro- and micronutrient deficiencies is increased by the adoption of a GFD or GRD. 

DOI: 10.3390/nu15061475

Study: weak evidence

In this research, two different pasta production chains were considered: a “high-quality pasta” chain (referred here as “local or regional scenario”), which follows traditional procedures in a Tuscan farm that uses only ancient wheat varieties; and a “conventional pasta” one (referred here as “global or industrial scenario”), in which pasta is produced using national and international grains, following industrial processes.

Large industries usually provision their durum wheat supplies on the international commodity market, Canada and Mexico being the main exporters. In Italy, however, main pasta producers preferably use durum wheat coming from the national market, integrating their supplies with products mainly from France, U.S.A., and Australia [2–8]. As a consequence, the environmental impact of this production sector can be significant, and this has pushed major pasta industries to start evaluating the environmental footprint of their productions by means of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and, in some cases, even by Environmental Product Declaration (EPD), according to the standards of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO standards) [9–11], making information widely available. The reasons supporting this choice are mainly due to the increasing attention of final consumers on the possible impacts of industrial production on the environment, which determined a growing public pressure on this thematic .

Furthermore, the renewed interest of consumers in ancient grains has promoted an increase in their cultivation and use, expanding the number of products offered by the baking industry [14]. This has also contributed to the safeguarding of biodiversity and to the development of a local micro-economy, which allows local producers to increase their profits by differentiating their products

The results of the present work show that the traditional pasta may cause impacts of 1.706 kg of CO2eq emissions, 13.7 MJ of fossil energy consumption, 0.206 kg of non-renewable resource, and 109 µgPO4-/FU per each kg of dried pasta produced, while the conventional pasta production accounts for 1.765 kg of CO2eq emissions, 14.3 MJ of fossil energy consumption, 0.152 kg of non-renewable resource, and 126 µgPO4-/FU per each kg of dried pasta produced, without considering both the distribution and domestic cooking phases.

DOI: 10.3390/resources8010056

At the end, the study suggested that the cultivation of ancient varieties and landraces in organic and low-input
farming systems have a large potential for reducing the environmental impact of pasta

DW cultivation impact is mainly linked to the use of fertilisers
and pesticides that are responsible for the emission
of GHGs and other polluting compounds: such explains
why the lowest value of GWP was found for the only company
cultivating DW under an organic farming regime;
• the best environmental profile based upon the ensemble
of EPD impact categories was determined to be that of
the organic pasta producer;
• the companies that expanded the system boundaries to
the phases of pasta cooking and post-consumption package
disposal found that the contribution of pasta cooking
is highly relevant in terms of energy consumption, thus
emphasising upon the need to adopt more eco-sustainable
cooking methods.

DOI: 10.1007/s11367-021-02016-7

The first concrete information concerning pasta products in Italy dates from the thirteenth or fourteenth century. The question of their origin continues to evoke speculations. Following the footsteps of many authors, beginning with Guiseppe Prezzolini, who in the 1950s questioned the legend of Marco Polo's importation of pasta from China, let us repeat that the Venetian merchant could not have had anything to do with the birth of the culinary tradition in Italy. Well before his return from his great voyage in 1296, the Mediterranean basin was setting for a prosperous trade in obra de pasta, as pasta product were at the time known in Cagliari, Sardinia. This indicats that pasta had long formed part of the diet of certain Mediterrranean peoples. The time has come to debunk once and for all this promotional incention, sprung fully formed from the fertile imagination of the editor of the Macaroni Journal, the newsletter of the National Macaroni Manufacurers Association, an association of American pasta makers.

The production cycle involves the same mechanized operation as are found in industrial production, with a few rare exceptions, whn it is neccesary to place the finished pasta manually in the drying chambers. The classic succession of processes n which mixing the raw materials with water is followed by bending, kneating, extrusion (or pressing), and cooling, is still respected, whatecer the scale of producer and whatever the type of equipment. But where industrial manufactureers made use ofdie plates covered with Teflon, the artisanal producer makes use of bronze die plates, which hae the particular result od creating a rough and porous surface, much better at holding sauce. Artisanal pasta also, and perhaps most importantly, stands out because it is dried at low temperatures (less than 45 degrees Celsius), which naturally lengthens the duration of this essential operation. This is a slow an gentle method that is particularly well suited to preserving the taste and aroma of the pasta.

Book

Im Ziel der klimafreundlichen Ernährung
(50% besser als der Durchschnitt).

Pasta
247 19 910 254 -> 0,972

CO₂ Tra kcal Gew

Other print medium

Drypasta 1292 347 210 1849

Potatoes 191 33 63 287

Rice,paddy 1146 341 187 1673

Wheat (204Gm3yr−1) and rice (202Gm3yr−1) have large blue water footprint together accounting for 45% of the global blue water footprint. The grey water footprint related to the use of nitrogen fertilizer in crops cultivation was 733Gm3 yr−1. Wheat (123Gm3 yr−1), maize (122Gm3yr−1) and rice (111Gm3yr−1) have large grey water footprint together accounting for about 56% of the global grey water footprint.

DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011

Table 3. The Water Footprint of Some Selected Food Products from Vegetable and Animal Origin

Vegetables 194 43 85 322

Starchy roots 327 16 43 387

Cereals 1,232 228 184 1,644

Beef 14,414 550 451 15,415

Chicken meat 3,545 313 467 4,325

DOI: 10.1007/s10021-011-9517-8

Den mit Abstand grössten Einfluss auf den Fussabdruck Biodiversität hat mit einem Gesamtanteil von 29 Prozent Soja, gefolgt von Weizen (15 Prozent) und Mais (12 Prozent). Der hohe Anteil der Soja am Fussabdruck Biodiversität ist darauf zurückzuführen, dass einerseits deren Flächenbedarf sehr hoch ist (2,84 Millionen Hektar) und dass andererseits die ökologische Wertigkeit der Herkunftsregion bei der Ermittlung des Fussabdrucks Biodiversität eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. 

Die Ökoregionen, in denen Soja angebaut wird, werden zum Teil als ökologisch sehr wertvoll eingestuft (z. B. die brasilianische Savanne, der Cerrado). Der hohe Anteil bei Weizen und Mais erklärt sich durch den sehr hohen Flächenbedarf dieser Agrarprodukte. Bei Weizen liegt dieser bei 2,9 Millionen Hektar, für Mais bei rund 2,1 Millionen Hektar. Trotz des hohen Flächenbedarfs hinterlassen Weizen und Mais einen geringeren Fussabdruck Biodiversität. Das liegt auch daran, dass diese vor allem in Deutschland und anderen europäischen Staaten angebaut werden und dass der ökologische Wert dieser Ökoregionen nicht so hoch eingestuft wird wie z. B. die brasilianische Savanne, die als ein globaler Hotspot der Biodiversität gilt. 

Den mit Abstand grössten Anteil am Fussabdruck Biodiversität haben mit 58 Prozent Fleisch und Wurstwaren sowie Tierprodukte, wie Molkereiprodukte und Eier (19 Prozent). Entsprechend gehen 77 Prozent des Fussabdrucks Biodiversität auf das Konto von tierischen Lebensmitteln.

Der Einfluss der tierischen Lebensmittel schlägt beim Verlust der Biodiversität noch mehr zu Buche als beim Flächenfussabdruck (75 Prozent) oder dem Klimafussabdruck (69 Prozent). Dies ist vor allem auf die Auswirkungen des Sojaanbaus auf die Biodiversität zurückzuführen. Dagegen entfallen nur 23 Prozent des Fussabdrucks Biodiversität auf pflanzliche Lebensmittel wie Obst, Gemüse, Getreide und Nüsse. 

Die grössten Auswirkungen auf die Biodiversität hat mit 29 Prozent der Sojaanbau. Dessen Auswirkungen sind deutlich höher, als es die Flächennutzung vermuten liesse. Zudem sind die Auswirkungen von Soja auf die Biodiversität  ungefähr doppelt so hoch wie die von Weizen (15 Prozent), obwohl die Flächen nutzung sogar etwas geringer ist. Dies erklärt sich vor allem dadurch, dass die Ökoregionen, in denen Soja angebaut wird (z. B. das Cerrado in Brasilien) als ökologisch wertvoller eingestuft werden als die Ökoregionen, in denen Weizen angebaut wird (z. B. die Mischwälder in Europa). So wird das Cerrado mit einem ökologischen Wert von 0,427 bewertet, europäische Mischwälder dagegen mit 0,107.44 Die Differenz lässt sich also direkt auf den Einfluss des Ökoregion-Faktors zurückführen, da die weiteren Faktoren, wie der Grad der Natürlichkeit (Hemerobiestufe), für beide Produkte gleich sind: Sowohl  Weizen als auch Soja werden intensiv angebaut, und der Anbau gilt damit als naturfern (Hemerobiestufe 6

Other print medium

S 124 :Vögel in der Agrarlandschaft sind europaweit auf dem Rückzug. Viele Vogelarten finden durch den Insektizideinsatz weniger Nahrung, weil mit den Schädlingen auch Futtertiere wie Schmetterlinge und andere Insekten getötet werden.

S123 : Wie bei den Regenwürmern wurde auch bei den Bienen nachgewiesen, dass nicht nur die reinen Pestizidwirkstoffe, sondern auch Beistoffe tödliche Wirkungen haben

116: Die meisten Menschen denken an ein oder zwei Bienenarten, aber es gbt allein in den USA 4000, in Österreich u die 700 Bienenarten

120: wie stark die Belstund unserer Umwet mit Pestiiziden ist, zeigen Untersuchungen von Pflanzenpollen aus Bienenstöcken. Bis zu siebzehn verschiedene, toxische Pestizide wurden in Bienenpollen gefunden

S122 : Das zeigt, dass landwirtschaftliche Flächen nicht unbedingt grüne Wüsten sind, sondern tatsächlich auch eine hohe biodiversität beherbergen können. Die wenigsten davon sind Schädlige an den landwirtschaftlichen Kulturen. Im Gegenteil, viele davon dezimieren Schädlinge in den weizenfeldern un betreiben damit biologische Schädlingskontrolle. ... dass die Menge und Vielfalt an Insekten und Spinnen in unserer Kulturlandschaft in den letzen 35 Jahren fast um die Hälfte gesunken ist.

S129f: Agrarökosysteme verlieren ihre Selbstregulation: Pestizide tragen massgeblich zu Biodiversitätsverlusten bei: Fast rin viertel der in der EU gefährdeten Arten sind durch aus Land-und Forstwirtschaft stammende Schadstoffe bedroht. .. Wenn Insekten und Beikräuter durch Pestizide vernichtet werden, leiden darunter auch Parasitoide oder räuberische Spinnen, die als Gesundheitspolizei i Ökosystem fungieren und Schadinsekten dezimieren Daraus entsehen Lücken im Nahrungsnetz, die Stabilität von Ökosystem ist gefährdet. Was letzlich auf dem Spiel steht, sind Ökosystemleistungen wie Bestäubung, natürliche Schädlingskontrolle, Trinkwasserreinugung, Närstoffkreisläufe und Bodenfruchtbarkeit. Diese können nur von einem gut funktionierenden Ökosystem erbracht werden

147: Die steigende Zahl der Krebserkrankungen, hormoneller Effekte und neurologischer Störungen (wie zum Beispiel die Parkinson-Krankheit) werden allerdings zweifelsfrei in einen Zusammenhan mit dem Einsatz mancher Pestizide in der Landwirtschaft gebracht.

Book

Narratives Review

Phytochemicals are defined as bioactive nonnutrient plant components in WGs, fruits, vegetables, and other plant foods that have been associated with reduced risk of major chronic diseases [15]. WGs are rich sources of phytochemicals with health benefits that are only recently becoming recognized [13, 15]. The groups of bioactive components found in WG wheat include alk(en)ylresorcinols (ARs), benzoxazinoids (BXs), phytosteroids, sphingolipids, lignans, flavonoids, phenolic acids, fatty acids and glycolipids, tocols, carotenoids, and other minor components. The identities, suitable analytical approaches, and available tandem mass data for these compounds were shown in Table 1. 

To date, few studies have been performed to investigate flavonoid profiles in wheat grains [62–65]. As reported, flavonoids occur in wheat grains mostly in C-glycoside forms [63–65]. The major structures found in wheat grains are given in Fig. 5

Sterole (Beta-Hydroxy-Sitsoterol, Sitosterol, Campesterol, Stigmasterol)

Among them, the major forms of wheat flavonoids are flavones, flavones C-glycosides, and anthocyanins

Accumulated evidence in epidemiological studies has consistently shown that consumption of whole grains (WGs) is inversely associated with risk of major chronic diseases such as certain types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201600852

Study: weak evidence