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Carbohydrates (CHO)
Carbohydrates provide our bodies with energy – but not all of them work the same way. Discover the different types, their functions, and how you can avoid the formation of harmful, carcinogenic substances during heating by eating raw foods.
A balanced, plant-based diet with few to no industrially processed foods generally provides sufficient macro- and micronutrients, with the exception of vitamin B12. However,phytochemicalsare particularly relevant for maintaining health and healing, even though they are not considered essential nutrients – apart from vitamins.
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Definition
Carbohydrates (CHO, saccharides), along with proteins and fats, constitute one of the three macronutrients in the human diet. Unlike the other two, however, there is no established minimum requirement for them.1
Carbohydrates include sugars, starches, and dietary fiber. They are classified into different categories according to the number of sugar units and the type of chemical bonding. Depending on the number of linked building blocks, they are distinguished as monosaccharides (simple sugars = one single building block), disaccharides (double sugars = two linked monosaccharides), oligosaccharides (3–9 linked monosaccharides), and polysaccharides (>10 linked monosaccharides).
The sweet taste of lactose and fructose leads to the term "sugar." We can consume simple sugars directly without the need for digestive processes. Disaccharides can be quickly converted into simple sugars and absorbed. Unlike in the USA, in Europe the amounts listed as "sugars" in food do not include oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. This means that these carbohydrates are not counted as sugars in the EU's nutritional information on food packaging. This is because they consist largely of indigestible dietary fiber. Therefore, in the EU, the differentiated information "Carbohydrates... of which sugars" is used.
Occurrence
Carbohydrates are found in all animal and plant cells, as they are the most abundant organic compounds. In grain-based foods, they occur primarily in the form of starch, the plant equivalent of animal glycogen. In dairy products, carbohydrates are predominantly present as lactose, while in fruits, fructose predominates. Besides these forms, there are also indigestible components with a carbohydrate structure, which belong to the dietary fiber and provide a multitude of positive and protective health benefits. Unfortunately, this type of carbohydrate is often lacking in the Western diet, while the readily available simple and double sugars, often labelled as "fattening," dominate.
Below is a list of the subgroups with their most well-known representatives and information on their structure and food sources:
Monosaccharides (simple sugars) Monosaccharides are the smallest building blocks of carbohydrates, subdivided into pentoses (five-carbon sugars, 5 carbon atoms such as ribose and deoxyribose, i.e., the basic structures of RNA and DNA) and hexoses (six-carbon sugars, 6 carbon atoms). However, our bodies can only absorb and utilize 4 of the 12 naturally occurring hexoses: glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose.
Glucose (also known as glucose, dextrose, or grape sugar) – the most abundant organic compound in nature and the most important carbohydrate building block for human energy metabolism. It is found in virtually all foods. We rarely ingest glucose in its pure form, but mostly through the breakdown of starch, glycogen, or other carbohydrates, which our body breaks down into their basic building blocks.
Fructose (fruit sugar) is the sweetest of the known monosaccharides. We obtain it primarily from fruits, honey, and also from vegetables. Dried fruits (figs, raisins, apricots, etc.) in particular have a high fructose content. Ripening fruits also develop a sweeter aftertaste because enzymes (functional proteins) they contain break down sucrose into fructose and glucose units. Fructose is not essential for our metabolism and can be produced from glucose in the liver.
Galactose (milk sugar) occurs in small amounts in many foods. However, milk and dairy products make up the vast majority of it in the human diet. There, it is found as lactose, a disaccharide composed of one unit each of galactose and glucose. The enzyme lactase is needed to break it down into these two basic building blocks.4
Mannose is found in microbes (fungi, bacteria, viruses, and protozoa), plants, and animals. Free mannose is present in small amounts in many fruits such as oranges, apples, and peaches. More frequently, mannose occurs in multiple compounds, such as yeast mannans (α-mannose), in certain yeasts (fungal organisms), or as galactomannans (branched substances similar to starch). Coffee beans, fenugreek, and guar gum are rich sources of galactomannans, but these are not broken down in the digestive tract of mammals and therefore provide very little usable mannose.
Disaccharides (double sugars) This group consists of two linked monosaccharide building blocks. The most prominent disaccharides in the human diet are:
Sucrose (table sugar, granulated sugar) is the best-known example and consists of one glucose and one fructose unit. It is obtained from sugar beets, sugar cane, maple sap, etc., and is also found in honey and in many fruits and their products (fruit juices, etc.).
Lactose (milk sugar) originates primarily from the mammary glands of mammals. Lactose consists of one glucose and one galactose unit. The enzyme lactase, which is found in the intestinal lining, among other places, is required to break down lactose. A deficiency of this enzyme is one of the main causes of lactose intolerance. You can find more information below.2
Maltose (malt sugar, barley sugar) is a breakdown product of the polysaccharide starch and consists of two D-glucose molecules. It occurs only rarely in natural foods, as it is primarily produced by the breakdown of starch during the germination or malting of grains. (Malting = germination process that activates certain enzymes leading to desired breakdown products; often used in brewing).7
Raffinose is a trisaccharide (triple sugar) composed of fructose, galactose, and glucose. It occurs in large quantities in the seeds of many cultivated plants, particularly in the legume family, such as soybeans, lentils, and chickpeas. Raffinose is also found in roots and specialized storage organs like tubers and leaves, for example, in sugar beets. A specific enzyme, α-galactosidase, is required to break down raffinose, but this enzyme is not present in the human body. Therefore, we cannot break it down in the upper digestive tract and absorb its components. In the large intestine, this task is performed by our gut bacteria.
Stachyose is a tetrasaccharide(A quadrisaccharide) consisting of two galactose units and one glucose and one fructose unit. It occurs in larger quantities in legumes such as soybeans and in cucurbits. Since we cannot digest it (like raffinose), bacteria in the large intestine use it as a food source. A study in humans showed that stachyose positively influences the gut microbiota (intestinal bacteria) of healthy adults and effectively improves bowel function in patients with constipation.9
Oligofructose (fructooligosaccharide or FOS) occurs naturally in plants such as onions, chicory, garlic, asparagus, bananas, and artichokes, to name just a few. It consists of a chain of fructose units and, due to this linkage, passes undigested into the large intestine, where it serves as a food source for gut bacteria (primarily bifidobacteria) and is therefore called a prebiotic (plural: prebiotics: substances that provide food for our gut bacteria). Because of its sweetness, it is often found as a sugar substitute in processed foods and beverages; products for children also often contain added FOS to promote the growth of a beneficial gut microbiota.
Polysaccharides (complex sugars) Polysaccharides consist of at least 10 linked monosaccharide units and fulfill energy storage and structural functions in nature – the latter primarily as components of plant cell walls. Many polysaccharides are not biodegradable and fall into the category of "dietary fiber". Among the best-known polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
Starch is the most important storage carbohydrate in plants, composed of two different glucose polymers (multiple glucose units): amylose (forming linear chains) and amylopectin (forming branched structures).2,11 Together, these two polymers form granules that plant cells, for example, use as a building block for cell walls. Although we can digest most of it thanks to our enzymes, some remains, which we call "resistant starch" and classify as dietary fiber.2 Unprocessed, starchy foods in our diet include: basmati rice and brown rice, amaranth, spelt, quinoa, lentils, teff, certain types of beans, potatoes, andsweetcorn.12
Glycogen is the main storage carbohydrate of animal and human cells. It is more branched than starch, but like starch, it consists only of glucose units.2,13 We need it when energy is scarce, in order to break it down into glucose units and supply these to the body for energy production. Our body uses the glucose absorbed through food to store it in the form of glycogen. The liver and skeletal muscles are the two main storage sites in humans.13
Cellulose is probably the most abundant polysaccharide worldwide and a major component of plant cell walls. Unlike starch, it is unbranched and cannot be used by us because we cannot break down the bonds between these β-1,4-glycosidically linked glucose molecules using our own enzymes.2
Storage and Preparation Losses
During the wet heat treatment of vegetables and fruits, such as blanching, boiling, and canning, low molecular weight carbohydrates (i.e., mono- and disaccharides) are lost. For example, carrots and swedes (rutabagas) lose 25 % and 30 % of these carbohydrates, respectively, during blanching, and a further 20 % during boiling. For peas, green beans, and Brussels sprouts, the losses are lower, about 12 % after blanching and 7–13 % during boiling. The loss of glucose and fructose during boiling is greater than that of sucrose.29
Dietary fiber
When carrots, peas, green beans, and Brussels sprouts are blanched, boiled, and preserved, the fiber remains in the vegetables and does not leach into the boiling water. However, when rutabagas are boiled, about 40 % of the fiber, primarily the insoluble fiber, is lost. Insoluble fiber also leaches into the boiling water when rutabagas are preserved. 29
Maillard – Reactions
Maillard reactions occur when reducing sugars like glucose (carbohydrates) react with amino acids (proteins) in food during processing and storage. This non-enzymatic browning occurs upon heating.
Acrylamide is a harmful product of the Maillard reaction, which forms in carbohydrate-rich foods like French fries and bread at temperatures above 120 degrees Celsius. It can alter DNA and increase the risk of cancer. Avoiding harmful Maillard molecules is one reason why raw food is healthy. You can find more information in the article " Why Raw Food? " and the book review " The Raw Food Therapy " by Guy Burger.
Maillard reactions also reduce the bioavailability of amino acids, especially lysine, which diminishes the nutritional value of proteins. The carbohydrate content and its availability remain largely unchanged.29
Nutrition - Health
Carbohydrates serve as energy suppliers in food because they provide readily available energy. As energy carriers, they are also relevant for the body in cases of hypoxia (oxygen deficiency or reduced oxygen content in the blood), whereas the metabolism of fats via β-oxidation (the breakdown mechanism of fatty acids for energy production) does not occur without oxygen.2
Our bodies can produce carbohydrates from amino acids and fats – therefore, they, like saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, are not essential. DA-CH (an abbreviation for Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) and WHO recommend that healthy individuals obtain 55–60 % of their energy from carbohydrates – that is, approximately 5–6 g per kilogram of body weight (e.g., for an 80 kg person, this would be 400–480 g of carbohydrates per day).2
It is advisable to ensure that a large proportion of these carbohydrates come in the form of whole-grain products. These carbohydrates are not as readily absorbed and also contain more fiber, which slows down the rise in blood sugar. The intake of sugars (mono- and disaccharides) should make up less than 10 % of the total carbohydrate intake.
Deficiency symptoms
In case of a deficiency (e.g., due to fasting or low-carbohydrate diets), our body can produce carbohydrates itself, primarily in the liver, from lactate (lactic acid), pyruvate (an intermediate product of various metabolic pathways), and certain amino acids. Another possibility is the synthesis of carbohydrates from glycerol and triacylglycerols, i.e., fats.2
The process of forming glucose from non-carbohydrate substances is called "gluconeogenesis" (new glucose formation) in scientific terms. This process serves to ensure a constant blood glucose level, even in situations of deficiency, which we need for the functioning of our bodily systems.17
Overconsumption
Long-term overconsumption of carbohydrates can lead to a chronic accumulation of lipids in the liver, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue, which can impair insulin sensitivity and overall cardiometabolic health.28 The Commission on Reference Intakes in Foods therefore recommends a maximum intake (UL) of ≤ 25 % of total calories from added sugars.3
Functions in the body
Carbohydrates primarily serve as an energy source in metabolism, which is why terms like "carbo-loading" are often used in preparation for more intensive endurance sports. This involves deliberately consuming foods high in carbohydrates to replenish glycogen (the storage form of carbohydrates) and have more energy reserves the next day. Carbohydrates fulfill the following functions in the body:2
Carbohydrates and their components play an important role as building blocks of cell membranes that surround our cells.
They are also essential components of glycoproteins, which are important for signal transduction, and of the extracellular matrix, which forms the tissue between and surrounding cells.
Furthermore, they are crucial components of connective tissue and nucleic acids, which contain genetic information.
Carbohydrates also serve as starting materials for the production of non-carbohydrate compounds, such as amino acids and lipids.
Absorption and Metabolism
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth, where salivary amylase (also known as α-amylase 1 or ptyalin) initiates the breakdown process. These enzymes in saliva break down certain sugar compounds. This is easily noticeable if, for example, you keep a piece of bread in your mouth long enough for the enzymes to break down the bonds, and you perceive the sweetness of the individual sugars.
In the next step, the broken-down and undigested carbohydrates pass from the stomach into the intestines. However, the intestinal lining cells can only absorb monosaccharides. Therefore, the body must break down disaccharides, polysaccharides, and complex sugars into their basic components. This occurs via specific enzymes supplied by our saliva and the pancreas. As mentioned above, not all bonds can be broken (e.g., the bond between glucose units in cellulose), which leads to the distinction between digestible (usable) carbohydrates and indigestible (unusable) carbohydrates. The latter fall into the category of dietary fiber, which we will discuss in another article.
The body processes different types of sugar in different ways. Here we explain how this works for glucose, fructose, and galactose:
Glucose: Absorbed glucose enters the bloodstream, causing an increase in the hormone insulin. This hormone, among other things, ensures more efficient uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Our body processes some of it through glycolysis (a stepwise breakdown of simple sugars like D-glucose, which also occurs without oxygen) – and, in the presence of oxygen, subsequently in the citric acid cycle (a breakdown cycle for energy production and to provide building blocks for further bodily processes).2,15 The portion we do not need is stored by our body as glycogen in liver and muscle cells through a process called glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis or glycogen formation).
Fructose: The absorption of the simple sugar fructose (directly or indirectly through the breakdown of sucrose) into intestinal cells has a low transport rate; that is, not as much fructose enters the cells per unit of time as is the case with glucose. If too much fructose is consumed through food or beverages, it can lead to malabsorption (impaired absorption) due to the overloaded transport systems. If this defect is congenital or acquired, it is called "fructose malabsorption." The excess, unabsorbed fructose then reaches the large intestine, where it serves as food for intestinal bacteria, leading in this case to increased flatulence (excessive gas) or even diarrhea. Fructose metabolism occurs independently of the insulin hormone, in stark contrast to glucose. This has led to the recommendation that fructose be considered a suitable sweetener for diabetics. However, there is a risk that excess fructose – especially from non-natural sources (sweeteners, beverages) – can lead to health complications, which we will discuss further under the heading "Fructose in Sweeteners – Does the Benefit Outweigh the Harm?" 2,16
Galactose: Galactose is a carbohydrate building block of lactose. It is therefore mainly found in milk and milk products. While the enzyme lactase, which is necessary for breaking down lactose into D-glucose and D-galactose, persists beyond childhood in many Europeans, this is generally not the case in African or Asian populations. As with fructose, the metabolism of galactose in the liver occurs independently of the insulin hormone.
Storage - Consumption - Losses
The body stores carbohydrates as glycogen in the liver (approximately 80-120 g) and in the muscles (approximately 350-700 g). However, the limited storage capacity for glycogen in the liver means that we convert excess glucose into triacylglycerols (triglycerides, neutral fats) and cholesterol. In the case of a glucose deficiency, the body releases glucagon, the antagonist of the insulin hormone. This breaks down glycogen (glycogenolysis, i.e., the breakdown of glycogen) and thus provides the body with readily available glucose for energy production.
Even though a large proportion of glucose ends up in the primary urine (the first urine fraction formed in the renal corpuscles after filtration), we reabsorb this valuable resource through transport systems (primarily SGLT-2, a target of some medications for diabetics) and transport the glucose back into the kidneys. Therefore, healthy individuals find very little glucose in their final urine (the concentrated urine that ends up in the bladder and is then excreted). If the reabsorption capacity of the kidneys is exceeded (e.g., due to high blood sugar in diabetes), more glucose enters the urine, a condition known as glucosuria (increased excretion of glucose in the urine). For this reason, diabetes was formerly referred to as "honey-sweet flow" or "honey urinary dysentery," because the sugar content in the urine gave it a sweet odor.
Unlike glucose, our bodies do not store fructose in reserves that can be used in case of deficiency. Similar to glucose, fructose has a high reabsorption rate in the urinary system and is therefore barely present in the final urine.
There is no specific storage form for galactose. Furthermore, reabsorption from the primary urine is very efficient, which is why galactose is hardly present in the final urine.2
Additional information for particularly interested readers
Carbohydrates – how bad are they really?
Foremost, it's important to define the term carbohydrates correctly to establish a common understanding. Many people think of carbohydrates as "sugar" or "starch," or both. But carbohydrates are much more than that. Only simple and double sugars are considered "sugar." Starch is a polysaccharide – our bodies can break it down relatively easily; yet there is also starch that passes unchanged into our large intestine, where it is fermented by gut bacteria and serves as food for them. The majority of dietary fiber has a carbohydrate structure and also belongs to the polysaccharides – and these are many things, but generally the opposite of harmful to our health. Dietary fiber is separated from carbohydrates in nutritional information because of digestibility, but strictly speaking, they belong together – but this is something most people don't think about when they discuss a "low-carb" diet (focusing on carbohydrate-free foods or those with very few carbohydrates).
As mentioned earlier in the text, carbohydrates are not essential for us, as we can produce them ourselves from other components such as proteins and fats. Theoretically, an intake of carbohydrates wouldn't be necessary – although carbohydrates in the form of dietary fiber have a whole range of positive and protective health effects. However, these are typically lacking in the Western diet and in the age of fast food.
It is beyond question that excessive consumption of foods high in refined (processed and isolated) sugars, such as those found in white flour, is detrimental to our health. Products made from these sugars, such as pizza dough, white bread, and white pasta, contain very little fiber and only readily available carbohydrates—or "sugars".12 This increases insulin secretion compared to whole-grain products, and can even lead to increased insulin sensitivity.18
If you only consider carbohydrates as mono- and disaccharides, they are viewed negatively. However, in the form of whole-grain products, etc., which have a high fiber content, the effect of sugar release can be effectively counteracted. Furthermore, less processed foods contain not only a better carbohydrate composition but also more micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals than highly processed products.
In short: Carbohydrates are not inherently bad. However, an excess of readily available and easily digestible carbohydrates is harmful eventually and puts a strain on our bodily systems, especially blood sugar. Consuming more natural and unprocessed foods with a higher proportion of valuable carbohydrates supports the digestive system, promotes a healthy gut microbiota, and thus protects long-term health.
Fructose in sweeteners – do the benefits outweigh the risks?
High fructose consumption is suspected of increasing the risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). This complex condition includes the accumulation of fat in the liver and inflammatory diseases of the fatty liver – also known as steatohepatitis (fatty liver inflammation).19
Niko Rittenau also summarized studies on this topic in his book. He writes that while scientists consider overconsumption of fructose an important parameter for NAFLE, this must be distinguished from the consumption of pure fruit. NAFLE is frequently found in connection with diseases such as type 2 diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome (the co-occurrence of certain diseases such as obesity, impaired glucose and lipid metabolism, and high blood pressure). However, studies have indicated that only a hypercaloric energy intake (higher calorie intake than expenditure) has negative effects from fructose. Furthermore, patients with NAFLE eat significantly less fruit on average than healthy individuals. This leads to the following conclusion: An excess of calories can cause a negative effect from fructose, and fruit does not appear to be the primary contributing factor to the aforementioned condition, but rather non-naturally enriched fructose. This includes, among other things, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS).
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is produced from cornstarch (cornflour, maize) – it has an intense sweetness and low production costs. Due to its use in processed foods, it represents a significant source of fructose, especially in North America. HFCS is suspected of contributing to the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), visceral obesity (accumulation of fat tissue in the abdominal cavity), and lipid metabolism disorders.2 Based on current knowledge, it can be assumed that excessive isolated fructose and a calorie surplus have negative health consequences, while the intake of fructose from fruit has protective effects in healthy individuals. Furthermore, regular fruit consumption has been shown to have a weight-reducing effect.16
It can therefore be said that there is no need to fear the fructose contained in fruit in everyday life, provided it is not consumed in such quantities that it exceeds the body's transport and breakdown capacities. However, artificial sweeteners and fructose-containing sweeteners should only be consumed in small amounts, or preferably not at all. Furthermore, the claim of "sweeteners suitable for diabetics" should not be accepted without critical examination. While fructose-based sweeteners do not raise insulin levels, they do put a strain on the liver and, according to current knowledge, could contribute to the aforementioned diseases in the long term.
Particularly high concentrations of fructose are found in the following foods: agave syrup, apple syrup, maple syrup, and honey. But pressed fruit juices, sugary drinks, fast food, and many sweets are also rich in fructose.12
Myths about Sugar in Nutrition
In the following two CLICK FOR videos, you will find researched answers to the most common myths surrounding carbohydrates and sugar. We explore the health benefits of honey over sugar and clarify whether brown sugar is truly much better than white sugar.
Myth 1: Is honey much better than sugar?
Honey is sweeter than table sugar (sucrose) because an enzyme used by bees, invertase, breaks down the fruit nectar into glucose and fructose. Fructose has a higher sweetening power than sucrose, so less of it is needed. The mineral and vitamin profile in honey varies depending on the flower variety and geographical origin, and makes up between 0,2 and 0,5 % of the honey's dry weight. While these proportions are higher in honey than in white sugar, they make practically no difference in terms of quantity compared to the recommended daily intake in various dietary guidelines.
The phytochemical compounds in honey that influence its biological activity depend on various factors: flower source, honey type, concentration, and bee type. Most of honey's therapeutic properties are attributed by researchers to polyphenols, but their mechanisms are not fully understood.
Quality pays off because various conditions such as high-temperature heating during production, high moisture content, adulteration, poor packaging, and poor storage conditions impair the nutritional benefits of honey.22,23 When adding honey to drinks and foods, these should no longer be hot. For example, the enzyme invertase can be destroyed at 40 °C, and other heat-sensitive components are also affected.24
Furthermore, it should be noted that there is a risk of Clostridium botulinum spores. The heating process used to process honey is insufficient to kill them. While this is not a problem for adults, it can promote the germination of these bacteria in young children, and therefore, according to nutritional guidelines, honey is not recommended for their consumption.
In conclusion, honey can be used as a sugar substitute due to its high sweetness. To benefit from its nutritionally valuable components, cold-extracted honey is best – preferably without adding it to hot (> 40 °C) drinks or foods. Some recent studies attribute health-promoting properties to honey, but further experimental and clinical research is needed for conclusive evidence and potential use against inflammatory diseases. The composition of honey varies depending on the flower source, honey type, concentration, and bee species – it's worth paying attention to quality. Honey is certainly healthier than white sugar, but consumption should still be moderate, and it is not recommended for young children due to the possibility of contamination with heat-resistant bacterial spores.
Myth II: Is brown sugar better than white sugar?
It is often said that brown sugar (raw sugar, whole cane sugar, whole sugar) is healthier than white sugar. White sugar consists of at least 99,5 % pure sucrose and is "refined" (purified) by dissolving, filtering, crystallizing, and centrifuging it from sugar cane or sugar beets. The molasses produced as a byproduct contains, in addition to sugar, other components such as vitamins, inorganic salts, and betaine (primarily in beet sugar molasses).
Brown sugar is usually just regular table sugar that gets its brown color from the addition of molasses. Alternatively, brown dye may be added, or not all refining steps may be carried out. In the latter case, residual molasses then colors the sugar brown.
A comparison of brown and white sugar, based on USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) nutritional information, shows that 100 g of brown sugar contains only 2.68 mg more vitamins, 253 mg more macro-minerals, and 0.7 mg more micronutrients than the same amount of white sugar. Considering the human body's needs for these nutrients and the amounts contained in 100 g of brown sugar, there is no additional health benefit. The main difference lies in taste and culinary applications, such as baking.
Conclusion: As aptly summarized in Biesalski 's book, there is no evidence for a significant health benefit of brown sugar.2
Another example is the recently much-discussed coconut blossom sugar. A comparison of the nutrients in 100 g of coconut blossom sugar and the same amount of white sugar shows that the palm sugar obtained from the flower heads does contain slightly less total sugar (approx. 8 %) and contributes more minerals (1,2 g) and protein (1,4 g). However, the difference is minimal. And when you consider the environmental impact of transporting coconut blossom sugar to Western countries (mostly from Asia), its use is questionable given the negligible nutritional benefit. You're better off avoiding sugar altogether, regardless of type or origin.
Conclusion
We can synthesize the basic building blocks of carbohydrates ourselves from amino acids and fats, which is why, strictly speaking, their intake through food is not absolutely necessary. However, the definition of carbohydrates itself is unfortunately not known to everyone. Complex carbohydrates, especially polysaccharides and complex sugars, contain nutrients that are indigestible for us but valuable for our gut microbiota (intestinal bacteria). These promote gut health, slow the rise in blood sugar levels, lead to a prolonged feeling of satiety, promote cholesterol reduction, protect us from harmful germs, and also increase the absorption of certain micronutrients. Since we cannot break down and absorb these types of carbohydrates, they are listed separately as "dietary fiber" on food labels in the EU, for example.
The increase in processed foods, coupled with fructose-containing sugary drinks, in the diets of many countries leads to an excess of readily available carbohydrates – in short, "sugar." Over time, this has a detrimental effect on our health and promotes the development of lifestyle diseases. Sugar substitutes or sweeteners are a way to satisfy the craving for sweetness in the short term, but they perpetuate it eventually. Despite its insulin-independent metabolism, fructose is not suitable as a sugar alternative for diabetics. However, consuming it in the form of whole fruits has health benefits. This means that consuming it solely as a sweetener in drinks and processed foods is not recommended. In short, a healthy mix of various carbohydrates with a high fiber content and little sugar (simple and double sugars) offers significant health benefits. Refined sugar, for example in the form of white flour in pastries and pizza dough, leads to a sharp rise in insulin and is therefore nutritionally more problematic than choosing whole-grain products.
Additional information: Sugar substitutes and sweeteners
Sugar substitutes are considered alternative sweeteners because their metabolism is largely independent of the insulin hormone, and they have only a minimal effect on blood sugar levels. The best-known examples are fructose and natural sugar alcohols such as sorbitol and xylitol. There are also synthetically produced sugar alcohols such as maltitol, isomalt, and lactitol. Sugar alcohols are lower in energy than simple and double sugars, but in larger quantities, they can cause diarrhea due to their partial, unchanged passage into the large intestine.
Sweeteners have a very intense flavor and differ from sugar substitutes in their sweetness. These include, among others, sucralose (E955), saccharin (E954), cyclamate (E952), aspartame (E951), and acesulfame K (E950). We will not discuss the individual sugar substitutes and sweeteners in further detail here.
Structure
Based on their structure, carbohydrates can be divided into three major groups: (1) simple sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) such as glucose or sucrose (glucose and fructose); (2) complex carbohydrates such as glycogen, starch, and cellulose, which consist of several linked glucose molecules; and (3) glycoconjugates, which are modified forms of glucose covalently linked to either proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids).26
Carbohydrates consist of groups of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio, with the composition Cn(H2O)n (n = any number, e.g., n = 6 → C6(H2O)6 = glucose).2
Bibliography - 30 Sources
Many researchers do not believe that Wikipedia is an authoritative source. One reason for this is that the information about literature cited and authors is often missing or unreliable. Our pictograms for nutritional values provide also information on calories (kcal).
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