Maissirup, bio? (High Fructose Corn Sirup, HFCS, Isoglucose)

(4) Enthalten die in Anlage 1 Nr. 7 oder 8 aufgeführten Erzeugnisse mehr als 5 Prozent Fruktose in Gewicht in der Trockenmasse, so sind sie als "Glukose-Fruktose-Sirup", als "Fruktose-Glukose-Sirup", als "getrockneter Glukose-Fruktose-Sirup" oder als "getrockneter Fruktose-Glukose-Sirup" zu bezeichnen, abhängig davon, ob der Glukose- oder Fruktoseanteil überwiegt.

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Tierstudie (in vivo), experimentelle Interventionsstudie

Excessive intake of sweetened soft drinks has been reported to be associated with a relatively higher risk of T2D and obesity [12,13,14]. Sweetened soft drinks contain large amounts of sweeteners, such as high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). HFCS was developed in the 1960s as a liquid sweetener to replace sucrose, and it was introduced to the food and beverage industry in the 1970s. The use of HFCS in soft drinks has increased rapidly owing to its inexpensive and sweet and tasty properties. The intake of HFCS-containing sweetened soft drinks induces gain in body weight and adipose tissue hypertrophy [15,16], and increases fasting blood glucose [17] and blood triglyceride levels [18]. On the contrary, there are reports that fructose-containing sugar intake is not associated with the development of T2D and obesity [19,20]. There is thus a disagreement on whether HFCS can be a direct risk factor for T2D or obesity. However, the caloric intake has been considered in only a few of these studies. Furthermore, few studies have been conducted to evaluate the effects of excessive intake of HFCS drinks on T2D and obesity under the same conditions of caloric intake. Therefore, it is unclear whether HFCS directly induces diabetes or whether excessive energy intake causes obese T2D.

Under controlled caloric intake and nutritional imbalance, the excessive intake of HFCS–water did not induce obesity, but did induce IGT. This condition was induced by insulin-secretion defect and decreased expression of Glut2, Gck, and Khk in the pancreas. However, no inflammation was observed. These results suggest that excessive consumption of HFCS drinks, such as soft drinks, without a proper diet, induces nonobese IGT due to insulin-secretion defect.

impaired glucose tolerance (IGT)

DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9050541

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

JMR and Rippe's research laboratory have received unrestricted grants and JMR has
received consulting fees from ConAgra Foods, Kraft Foods, Florida, Department of Citrus, PepsiCo International, The Coca Cola Company, Dr. Pepper/Snapple Group,
Corn Re ners Association, Weight Watchers International as well as royalties and
editorial of ce support from CRC Press, Sage Publishing and Springer Publishers. The
remaining author (TJA) declares no con ict of interest.

Few topics in nutrition are as controversial as added sugars.1–17 It
has been argued that added sugars may be associated with
increased risk of obesity,4,8 diabetes18,19 and cardiovascular
disease (CVD),20,21 and a variety of other adverse health
consequences. These assertions are largely based on epidemio-
logic studies or animal data. The issue is further clouded by
published literature comparing the effects of pure fructose to pure
glucose, despite the fact that neither is consumed to any
appreciable degree in the human diet.22–25

Subsequent research trials, however, have failed to
support the hypothesized unique linkage between HFCS and
obesity and have demonstrated that HFCS and sucrose are
virtually identical with regard to energy, sweetness and
absorption.39–43 As a result of this expanding research literature,
emphasis has shifted to a consideration whether or not fructose-
containing sugars, in general (for example, sucrose, HFCS and
concentrated fruit juices and so on), might be causally linked to
obesity.
There have been three recent systematic reviews and meta
analyses of RCTs of sugar consumption or sugar-sweetened
beverage consumption and body weight.44–46 These meta
analyses of RCTs demonstrate that when sugar is replaced with
energy-equivalent macronutrients, no increase in body weight
occurs. These meta analyses provided some evidence to suggest
that if energy consumption is increased by adding sugar to an
already isoenergetic diet in adults, this may lead to modest weight
gain. The weight gain, however, appeared to be a function of
increased energy consumption rather than sugars per se.
Prospective cohort trials have yielded similar results.

The worldwide pandemic of obesity and the dramatic increases in
diabetes, coupled with the fact that heart disease remains the
leading cause of mortality around the world, has appropriately led
to the exploration of factors which might be amenable to change
to help reduce the public health burden of these three
widespread conditions. Although we believe that it is prudent to
avoid excessive consumption of fructose-containing sugars, levels
within the normal range of human consumption when substituted
isoenergetically in diets for other carbohydrates do not appear to
cause any unique risk. It is our judgment that attention should be
focused more on reducing established risk factors for obesity,
diabetes and heart disease as recommended by numerous public
health organizations rather than focusing undue attention on
sugars.

DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2016.10

Study: weak evidence

Allen Zuckerarten gemein ist, dass sie aus Kohlenstoff, Wasserstoff und Sauerstoff
bestehen und zur Gruppe der Kohlenhydrate zählen. Die Unterscheidung der Zu-
ckerarten wird anhand des chemischen Aufbaus getroffen. Dementsprechend wird
nach Anzahl der Zuckermoleküle zwischen Einfachzuckern (Monosacchariden),
Zweifachzuckern (Disacchariden), Mehrfachzuckern (Oligo- bzw. Polysacchari-
den) unterschieden. Zur Gruppe der Monosaccharide gehören die am häufigsten in
Lebensmitteln vorkommenden Zucker Glukose und Fruktose, Saccharose (Glukose
und Fruktose), Laktose (Glukose und Galaktose) und Maltose (Glukose und Gluko-
se) sind hingegen Disaccharide (siehe Abb. 10.3). Zu den Polysacchariden zählen
Stärken und Ballaststoffe.

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-46280-5_10

Book

WHO recommends a reduced intake of free sugars throughout the lifecourse (strong recommendation6).
In both adults and children, WHO recommends reducing the intake of free sugars to less than 10% of total energy intake7 (strong recommendation).
WHO suggests a further reduction of the intake of free sugars to below 5% of total energy intake (conditional recommendation8).

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Prospektive Kohortenstudie (65'730 Frauen aus der Nurses’ Health Study und 39'418 Männer aus der Health Professionals Follow-up Study)

Higher SSB intake was associated with CVD risk regardless of physical activity levels. These results support current recommendations to limit the intake of SSBs even for physically active individuals.

(The underlying biological mechanism by which SSB intake is associated with an increased risk of CVD includes not only their capacity to induce weight gain but also the high amounts of quickly absorbable carbohydrates (i.e., sugar or high-fructose corn syrup), contributing to an increase in blood glucose and insulin levels and thereby glycemic load [13]. )

DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.01.001

Study: moderate evidence

EU-Report - Expertenbericht

The reviews have been designed to provide policymakers with summaries of recent and
relevant evidence in these key areas of interest.

High fructose syrups are liquid fructose-glucose sweeteners, commonly derived via the
hydrolisation of starch, alternative to common table sugar (sucrose). High fructose
syrups are commonly known as either High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS), in the United
States (US), or Isoglucose, in the European Union (EU)1
Isoglucose does not necessarily come from corn, yet acts in the same way as HFCS.

There was strong evidence that the general consumption of added sugars is linked to
changes in metabolism, and increased risk of obesity, heart disease and diabetes.
However, due to limited evidence about the health impact of HFCS, it is currently

inconclusive whether HFCS has health consequences related to overweight and obesity
beyond those attributed to added/free sugars.
Based on the handful of international scientific studies in this area, it is possible that:
 Increased levels of HFCS and added sugar consumption (in beverages) is
associated with an increased risk of CVD mortality (Stanhope et al., 2015);
 Consumption of HFCS in sugar-sweetened beverages could be linked to
increased insulin resistance and slower metabolism (Lin et al., 2016); and
 Increased obesity and diabetes prevalence in the general US population might
be partly attributable to the increased consumption and availability of HFCS
(Bray, Neilsen and Popkin, 2004; Goran et al., 2013).
Notably, only tentative statements can be made about the health consequences of
HFCS as its fructose content is not always accurately known. Studies also often use
SSBs as a proxy for HFCS, and difficulties remain in measuring HFCS in diets.

Consequently, non-systematic reviews of peer-reviewed research indicate inconsistent
findings regarding association and relationship between HFCS consumption with
weight gain and obesity (e.g. Stanhope, 2006; Tappy and Le, 2010). Further research
needs to be conducted before the health consequences of HFCS consumption can be
determined with accuracy. This also leads to the overall conclusion that unless new
evidence appears, efforts should be targeted at decreasing total (added)
sugar/sweetener consumption rather than specific types of sugar.

HFCS use is highest in the US (24.78 kg/year per capita), whilst Europeans
consume on average at least a third less of HFCS (kg/year per capita);
 Twelve countries within the EU do not use HFCS at all; and
 Of European countries that did consume HFCS, the five countries with the
highest use were Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Belgium, and Turkey. This aligns
to increased production in these countries since 2005/2006 (EEIG Agrosynergie,
2011).
Following the abolition of the EU sugar quota (explored further below), consumption of
HFCS is likely to increase in all European countries, mirroring higher consumption
levels of HFCS in unrestricted markets such as the US2.

DOI: 10.2875/494851

Study: weak evidence

Systematisches Review mit Meta-Analyse

In conclusion, analysis of data from the literature suggests that HFCS consumption was associated with a higher level of CRP compared to sucrose, whilst no significant changes between the two sweeteners were evident in other anthropometric and metabolic parameters.

Meta-analysis of effect of High-fructose corn syrup on. (A) Weight. (B) Waist circumstance. (C)Body mass index. (D) Fat mass. (E) Systolic blood pressure. (F) Diastolic blood pressure. (G)Fasting blood glucose. (H) Triglyceride. (I) Low-density lipoprotein. (J) High-density lipoprotein. (K) Total Cholesterol. (L) C-reactive protein.

CRP is a biomarker for inflammation; and several previous investigations have shown that fructose-containing sweeteners, such as HFCS and sucrose, can induce the inflammatory process (32, 33). 

It has been demonstrated in a rat study that the addition of sugars, in general, and HFCS directly or indirectly contribute to obesity, as well as various types of metabolic disorders and diseases 

Studies have shown that excess consumption of sugar can lead to weight gain, confers a greater risk of developing metabolic heart disease, and an increased risk of early mortality (2, 13–15).

DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.1013310

Study: strong evidence

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Sekundäranalyse von USDA-Daten

The displacement of sucrose with HFCS, its ubiquitous
presence in the US food supply, and the industry practice
of adding more fructose to HFCS than is generally-recog-
nized-as-safe, combined with the increased use of apple
juice as a sweetener in foods and beverages, and growing
use of crystalline fructose, agave syrup (70–90% fructose)
and apple powder, have all contributed to unprecedented
excess-free-fructose daily intake levels. Dosages have
exceeded and continue to exceed levels that trigger fruc-
tose malabsorption (~ 5 g-10 g)—a condition with far
reaching consequences. Excess-free-fructose promotes
gut formation of asthma provoking, proinflammatory
advanced glycation end-products (FruAGE) and causes
gut dysbiosis – a disease associated with a growing list of
chronic diseases including asthma, COPD, autoimmune
disease, IBD, IBS, CVD, NAFLD, CKD, and cardiometa-
bolic and mental health disorders.

Excess-free-fructose, also known as unpaired fructose, triggers fructose malabsorption [..] – a condition associated with gut dysbiosis and the gut/lung, gut/heart, gut/brain, and gut/kidney axes [..], and a wide range of adverse health consequences (asthma, COPD, autoimmune disease, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) / syndrome (IBS), cardiovascular disease (CVD), non-alcohol associated fatty liver disease (NAFLD), chronic kidney disease (CKD), and mental health and cardiometabolic disorders) ...; excess-free-fructose forms gut immunogens (advanced glycation end-products (FruAGE)) via glycation / fructosylation of dietary peptides and incretins with far reaching consequences [..]. FruAGE bind receptors (RAGE) that are central mediators of asthma [..]. Sucrose, a disaccharide of fructose and glucose, is not associated with fructose malabsorption, nor are equimolar concentrations of fructose and glucose [..], i.e., when in a ~ 1:1 fructose-to-glucose ratio 

DOI: 10.1186/s12937-024-00919-3

Study: weak evidence

Randomisierte, kontrollierte, Crossover‑Interventionsstudie (nur geringe Teilnehmerzahl)

 Ingestion of fructose in HFI immediately triggers symptoms as nausea and vomiting accompanied by hypoglycemia, acute hepatic and tubular renal dysfunction. This is due to the rapid accumulation of fructose-1-P in hepatocytes and proximal tubular renal cells expressing aldolase B, associated with ATP and inorganic phosphate consumption and cellular energy depletion. 

DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2021.01.026

Study: moderate evidence

Ökobilanz-Studie

The comparative cradle-to-gate assessment of inverted liquid sugar and HFCS has revealed that the later has higher impact (i.e. causes more damage) in14 out of the 18 analysed impact categories. Inverted liquid sugar has lower carbon and water footprint (by 38% and 95%, respectively) and its production requires less fossil energy (by 31%) and agricultural land (by 67%). The processing stage has relatively low contribution to the overall impact of inverted sugars and HFCS (in general less than 20% in most of the impact categories); therefore, further improvements in the process energy efficiency would have just minor impact on the overall results. Most of the life cycle impacts are attributable to the raw material production (i.e. beet sugar and corn grain) on which the inverted liquid sugar or HFCS producer has no, or very limited, influence

DOI: 10.14232/analecta.2019.1.28-39

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Figure 7. The green, blue and grey water footprint of HFMS 55 for the main maize producing countries.

The weighted global average WF of cane sugar is 1500 m3/ton, of HFMS 55 1125 m3/ton and of beet sugar 935
m3/ton. 

56 Maize (corn) 947 81 194 1222
Maize (corn) flour 971 83 199 1253
Maize (corn) groats and meal 837 72 171 1081
Maize (corn), hulled, pearled, sliced or kibbled 1018 87 209 1314
Maize (corn) starch 1295 111 265 1671
Maize (corn) oil 1996 171 409 2575

Fruits 727 147 93 967

DOI: 10.5194/hess-15-1577-2011

The developement of high fructose corn syrup can be tracesd back to 1811 when the Russian chemist Kirchoff reported his discovery that starch yielded a sweet substance when heted with acid. In 1815, de Saussure determined that the reaction of Kirchoff on starch was hydrolysis. He found thtat the end product of the hydrolytic reaction was grape sugar or dextrose.
These experiments established the basis for the commercial production of starch syrups and crude starch sugars. As the demand for starch derived syrups increased, corn emerged as the preferred source of starch because it was low in cost, plentiful, and easily stored. The result was the beginning of the present day corn wet milling industry. Significantly, this development opened up the corn growing temperate agricultural zone of the world to the production of raw materials for sweeteners with profound and continues impact on national economics. Heretofore, sweetener production had been largely limited to the tropocal and semi-tropical agriculture zones where sugar cane is grown.

The discovery, isolation, and application of various carbohydrase enzymes resulted in the development of many new corn syrups. These enzymes, principally bacterial alpha amylase, fungal glucoamylase, and fungal alpha amylase could be produced cheaply by fermentaion processes. These enzymes could be used sinfly, in sequence, or in combinations on starch to produce a broad range of syrup compositions with different properties. These product were called corn sweeteners. 

The commercial development of glucose isomerase which converts glucose to its sweeter isomer fructose was a major milestone in the corn sweetener industry. A historical perspective of this exciting development is presented by Casey. 

The enzymatic transfomation of glucose to fructose was first introduced to corn sweetener production in 1967. The first HFCS produced contained 15 percent fructose. The manufacturing process, known as isomerization, originally involved the direct addition of an isomerase enzyme to a dextrose substrate in a batch process. Further process improvments resulted in the HFCS product containing 42 percent fructose. 
In 1972, batch production was replaced by a continuois process utilizing isomerase enzyme immobilized on an insoluble carrier. This contiuous process for the production of high fructose corn syrup involved the firsst large scale use of an immpbilized enzyme system in the world. The continuous process resulted in significant reduction in production cpsts. The design and operation of continuous immobilized isomerase reactors for HFCS has been described. 

High fructose corn syrup products 42, 55, 90 (=% fructose)

Modern Process technlogy: The manufacturing process may be divided into about 18 separate steps in five major phases of operation, each of which has a major objective. The phases include dextrose production, primary refining and chemical treatment to produce dextrose feedstock, isomerization of dextrose feedstocl to produce 42 % fructose, secondary refining of 42 % fructose, and fractionation of 42 percent fructose for the production of 55 percent fructose.
The heart of the entire process is the enzymatic isomerization step utilizing immobilized glucose isomerase.
The economics and success of the isomerization reaction depends upon the production and delivery of high quality dextrose feedstock to the isomerization reactors.

Fig. 7.1. High fructose corn syrup manufactoring simplified process schematic.Steps: Mill Starch slurry, liquification- saccharification-filtration-primary carbon treatment-primary ion exchange-evaporation-chemical treatment-isomerization-secondary carbon treatment-secondary ion exchange-evaporation-42 HFCS-fractionator-10 VEFCS-Blending-evaporation-55 EFCS

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Narratives Review

DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2021.103901

Study: weak evidence

Narratives Review

Due to presence of free monosaccharaides (fructose and glu-
cose) in HFCS, it can improve flavour, colour, phys-
ical and microbial stability, texture and consistency of
food products more than sucrose. Although the phys-
ical and functional properties of HFCS have led to
increased use of HFCS in the food industry, especially
in beverages, however, some studies have shown that
high amount of fructose consumption involves in
some disorders such as the induction of insulin resist-
ance, impaired glucose tolerance, hyperinsulinemia,
hypertriglyceridaemia, and hypertension as well as
weight gain. Unlike possible correlation between high
fructose-rich diet and several metabolic and cardiovas-
cular adverse effects indicated by various studies, their
results cannot be generally attributed to the effects of
HFCS because they have evaluated pure fructose at
high/very high concentrations in measurement of
metabolic upsets. It has been stated that insulin resist-
ance, fasting and postprandial triglycerides and glu-
cose control were not detrimentally affected by
receiving moderate dose ( 50 g/day) of added fruc-
tose. It should be pointed out that some natural (and
even healthy) foods with long history of safe and use
such as honey, fruits and sucrose contain fructose
accompanied by glucose. Therefore, presence and con-
sumption of fructose in daily diet can not necessarily
be regarded as harmful or detrimental. Accordingly,
low-to-moderate consumption of HFCS in which fruc-
tose is accompanied by glucose cannot be assumed as
harmful. The probable effects could even be attenu-
ated or mitigated when HFCS is ingested via food
matrices. Therefore, the concept of two-edged sword
for fructose and HFCS depends on the daily con-
sumption and intake of these substances. In addition,
further relevant, well-designed and long-term investi-
gations are required to elucidate the health effects of
low-to-moderate consumption of HFCS-containing
food products.

Due to higher sweetness of HFCS-55
in comparison with HFCS-42, it is remarkably utilised
as sweetener in beverages. On the other hand, due to
mild sweetness of HFCS-42 and no masking of the
natural food flavours, it is widely used in canned
fruits, sauces, soups, seasoning, baked good and dairy
products (Parker et al. 2010; Zargaraan et al. 2016).
One of the market segments that HFCS is widely used
is beverages.

DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2020.1862068

Study: weak evidence

Expertenmeinung

In 1831, the US, the
country that produces the most syrup from starch today, established the first
American plant that produced syrup from starch. However, until the 1970s, the
production of starch-based sweeteners was carried out at an insignificant level.
However, at the end of the 1970s and in the early 1980s, the use of processed food
products, especially by US beverage companies, increased significantly, causing
this field of production to grow significantly. Due to the fact that corn is the most
important cereal product grown in the US, syrup production from corn starch has
become particularly common. The increase in HFCS production is almost certainly
in parallel with the increase in population and consumption (BeMiller & Whistler,
2009; Taubes, 2007; Bracking, 2009).

After the year 2000, HFCS production in the US increased the market share
in the sugar sector by more than 45% with an average production of 8.5 million
tons. Japan and Canada followed the US in terms of production amount. HFCS
production in the world is around 12.5 million tons. In Turkey, at the end of 2010,
it was approximately 400 thousand tons. The European Union (EU) is the third
largest sugar producer and the second largest consumer in the world. The use of
HFCS in the EU has been limited due to the quotas of an average of 2% (EU Sugar
Policy, 2018; Karaoğlu, 2011).

A product like HFCS, which was not available before 1970 in the US and whose usage increased 1,000 percent over the last 30 years should be considered closely (BWI, 2007).

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4429694

Expertenmeinung

The constant consumption of foods enriched with high-fructose corn syrup exerts a direct effect on the dopaminergic mesolimbic system, estimulate the synthesis of dopamine causing a sensation of pleasure. Continued use of these foods establishes the process of food addiction, which causes neuroadaptive changes and increased reactive tolerance. This causes overeating even knowing the health consequences. The uncontrollable weight gain highlights the need that obesity to be considered as a condition derived from an addictive process.

The main function of the adipocyte is to store excess energy in the form of triglycerides and then release them in situations of energy need [26].

DOI: 10.35702/clinres.10001

Narratives Review

Fructose induces cardiometabolic disorders via several different mechanisms and signaling pathways.

DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118235

Study: weak evidence

Product NameSugar, sucrose, whiteCountryDKCategoryConfectionery/sugar sweetening productsTotal (t CO2e/t)2.658833

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